
Pass LB67S 

Rnnk 114^/4 a 






MENTAL ILLUMINATION 



AND 



MORAL IMPROVEMENT 



OF 



MANKIND; 



OR, 



AN INQUIRY INTO THE MEANS BY WHICH A GENERAL 
DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AND MORAL 
^PRINCIPLE MAY BE PROMOTED. 

miustratetr ^itli ISnsraijinss. 



_iL> >- 



BY THOMAS DICK, LL. D. 

AUTHOR OF "THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER." "PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION." "PHILOSOPHY 

OF A FUTURE STATE," "IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY BY THE DIFFUSION 

OF KNOWLEDGE," &c. 



Ptilatrelphia : a 

KEY & BIDDLE, 23 MINOR STREET. 
1836. 



PREFACE. 



The train of thought which runs through the following Work 
has been familiar to the Author's mind for upwards of twenty- 
six years. Nearly twenty years ago, he intended to address 
the public on this subject ; but he is now convinced that, at that 
period, the attempt would have been premature, and conse- 
quently unsuccessful. He took several opportunities, however, 
of suggesting a variety of hints on the necessity of new-model- 
ling and improving the system of education — particularly in the 
London "Monthly Magazine," the "Edinburgh Christian In- 
structor," the " Christian Recorder," the " Perth Courier," and 
several other publications, as well as in several parts of his 
former volumes. — Of late years the attention of the public has 
been directed to this subject more than at any former period, 
and even the British Legislature has been constrained to take 
into consideration the means by which the benefits of edu- 
cation may be more extensively enjoyed. It is therefore to be 
hoped, t4iat the subject will now undergo a deliberate and un- 
biassed consideration, corresponding to its interest and impor- 
tance. 

In endeavouring to establish a new system of education — al- 
though every requisite improvement could not, in the first in- 
stance, be effected, — yet nothing short of a comprehensive and 
efficient system should be the model afi:er which we ought to 
copy, and to which all our arrangements should gradually ap- 
proximate. To attempt merely to extend the present, in many 
respects inefficient and limited system, without adopting those 
improvements which experience and the progress of society 
have rendered necessary, would be only to postpone to an in- 
definite period what must ultimately be established, if society is 
expected to go on in its progress towards perfection. 

In the following volume the author has exhibited a brief out- 
line of the whole series of instructions requisite for man, con- 
sidered as an intelligent and moral agent destined to immor- 
tality — from the earliest dawn of reason to the period of man- 
hood. But it is merely an outline ; for the subject, considered 

1* 



VI PREFACE. 

in all its bearings, is the most extensive and interesting that can 
occupy the attention of mankind. Should the present volume, 
however, meet with general approbation, some more specific 
details in reference to the subjects here discussed, and to other 
topics connected with the improvement of society, may after- 
wards be presented to the public. 

Several excellent works have lately been published on the 
subject of education, some of them recognising the leading prin- 
ciples which are here illustrated. But the author has, in every 
instance, prosecuted his own train of thought, without interfer- 
ing with the sentiments or language of others, unless where it 
is acknowledged. Some of the works alluded to he has not had 
it in his power to peruse ; and the same current of thought will 
sometimes occur to different writers on the same subject. — The 
greater part of this work was composed before the author had 
an opportunity of perusing the excellent treatise of Mr. Simp- 
son, entitled, " Necessity of Popular Education" — a work which 
abounds with liberal and enlightened views, and which recog- 
nises the same general principles which are here illustrated. 
But the two works do not materially interfere ; and the one 
may be regarded as a supplement or sequel to the other, both 
having a bearing on the same grand object. 

It was originally intended to offer a few remarks on classical 
learning, and on the system of education which prevails in our 
colleges and universities ; but the size to which the volume has 
swelled has rendered it expedient to postpone them to a future 
opportunity. For the same reason, the " Miscellaneous Hints 
in reference to the Improvement of Society," and the remarks 
on " Mechanics' Institutions," have been much abridged, and 
various topics omitted which were intended to be particularly 
illustrated. 

The author intends proceeding with his promised work " On 
the Scenery of the Heavens," as soon as his present engage- 
ments will permit. 

Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, ) 
November, 1835. \ 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. — Importance of the object proposed in the following work, and 
its practicability, pages 15 — 21. Reasons why it has never yet been accomplished, 
18. Prospects oi future improvement, 18. 

PART I. 

ON EDUCATION. 

Preliminary Remarks. — Importance of education — subject too much overlooked 
— deficiency in the arrangements made in reference to this object — desirable that a 
taste for intellectual pursuits be induced — what should be the grand object of edu- 
cation, 20 — 24. 

CHAPTER I. 

Present state of Education in different Countries, 24, 

Education during the dark ages — erection of colleges — era of the Reformation 
and the effects produced by it, 24 — 26. Education in the United States of America, 
26 — 30, — in Silesia, Wirtemberg, Bavaria, Prussia, &c. 30 — 34, — in France, 34, — 
Spain, 36, — Russia, 37, — Switzerland, 37. 

CHAPTER II. 

Strictures on the mode in which Education has generally been conducted, 38. 

Different views of the object of education — absurd practices in relation to it — 
deficiencies in the mode of religious instruction — summary of the usual scholastic 
process, 38 — 44 — Errors and deficiencies. 1. No communication of ideas, 44. 2. 
School-books not adapted to the capacities of youth — specimens of their contents, 
46 — immorality and absurdity of some of these selections, 47. 3. Injudicious exer- 
cise of the memory — Shorter Catechism, &c. 50 — 53. 4 Absurd attempts at teach- 
ing Grammar— Mr. SmelUe's remarks on this subject, 54. — Fastidiousness in regard 
to the art of Writing, 55. Strictures on the mode of teaching Arithmetic, 56-^ Va- 
rious circumstances which render education disagreeable to the young, want of 

ample accommodation — long confinement in school — undue severity — hurrying 
children from one book to another — attempts to teach several branches at one time, 
&c. 58 — 63. Glaring deficiencies in the present practice — attributable to the sys- 
tem more than to the teachers, 63 — 66. — Miscellaneous remarks, 66. 

CHAPTER III. 
Hints in reference to a comprehensive and improved system, of Education, 68. 

General view of what an enlightened education should embrace, 69. Defects 
in our treatises on this subject, 70 — Man's eternal destiny overlooked, &c. 70. 

On the Education of the young during the period o/" infancy. — Gradual opening 
of the infant mind, 71. Manner in which its ideas are increased, 72— rapidity of 
its progress and acquisitions, 73. — 1. Physical education of infants, importance of, 
74. — Food of infants ; remarks on nursing, 75. Propriety of paying attention to 
the effects of air and light, 76. — Cleanliness — anecdote of a Russian, 78—79. 
Clothing oi children., simplicity of dress — covering of the feet — directions in regard 
to shoes, illustrated by figures, 79 — 83. — Sleep and exercise of children, 83. — Atten- 
tion requisite to direct their pron»inciation, 85.-2. Moral instruction of infants, 85. 
Means of acquiring an absolute authority over them, 85. Plan recommended by 
Dr. Witherspoon, 86. Anecdote of Mr. Cecil — rule for securing authority — obsta- 
cles which prevent mothers from acquiring it — general violation of parental 



viii CONTENTS. 

authority illustrated — Abbot's " Mother at Home" recommended — anecdote ex- 
tracted from that work, 87 — 92. Im{X)rtanr-e of" attending to truth in the education 
ofcliildren, 92 — trutli and falsehood in pictorial exhibitions, 93. llhislrative anec- 
dote ii-om Mr. Abl)ot, 94. (iencral rules on tliis subject, 95. Habit of incessantly 
linding fault with children, 95. — (Children s^hould leel the consequences of their 
conduct, and be guarded against vnrti/tf juid self-conceit, 96 — 98. Danger off right' 
eniufr children, illustrated by an appalling fact, 99. Necessity of haimoinj in the 
conduct of parents towards their children, 99. — 3. Inlcllectual instruction ot infants, 
100. Objects, natural and artificial, which should be presented to their view — 
mode of conveying a knowledge of the qualities of objects, 102 — communication 
of idea.s by ertgravings, 103. Experiments on this subject, with a boy about two 
years old, 104 — lOl). Importance of imparting correct ideas to the iniaut mind, 107. 
Maternal associations, 108. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Oil Infant Schools, 108. 

Objects of infant schools, 109. — Proper situation for such institutions, and the 
apparatus requisite for conducting them, 109 — 111. — Method of teaching vocal 
music, the alphabet, arithmetic, and the factsof sacred history — figure of the AriVA- 
77Jr'//ro/i, 111 — 114. A(/tw///oi;ps which would flow from the universal establish- 
ment of infant schools — increase of usefid information — formation of intellectual 
habits — foundation laid of moral conduct — certainty of success when judicious 
moral training is attended to, 114 — 118. Moral etTeets of infant teaching, illus- 
traied by examples, 118 — 119. Infant schools, beneficial to general society and 
counteractive of juvenile delinquency, 120. Social habits cultivated with safely, 
122. Influence of infant schools on Missionary operations — infant schools in Africa, 
122 — 124 — such institutions ought to be \miversally established for all ranks, 125. 
Qualifications of teachers in order to render them eflilcicnt, 126. Origin and pro- 
gress of infant schools, 127. 

CHAPTER V. 

On Schools for Youvg persons from the age of Jive or six to the age of four- 
teen years, 128. 

Introductory remarks, 128 — plan, situation, and arrangement of school-room, illus- 
trated with cuts, 128 — 131. Idea of a seminary on a large scale, 132. School 
furniture — Apparatus and Museum — systematic sets of engravings,*132 — 134. Ds- 
scription of a new Optical Diagonal. Machine, with figiires, 135 — 136 — suggestions 
to engravers on this subject, 136. Beneficial effects of such schools, 137. School- 
books, and the principles on which they ought to be constnicted, 138. Specimens 
of subjects for elementary lx)oks, 140 — objections obviated, 141. Outline of a 
8chool-b<x)k for the advanced classes, drawn up twenty-six years ago, 143 — capacity 
of children for understanding judicious selections, 146 — third ser/cs of school-books, 
comprising popular systems of the sciences, c^c. 147. Historical class-books, with 
remarks on the manner in which history should be taught, 148 — propriety of em- 
bellishing school-books with engravings — Dictionaries and portable Cyclopedias, 
149. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Method of Teaching, and the Departments of Knowledge which should be 
taught in every Seminary, 151. 

Section I. English Heading. — Specimen of lessons for children, and the mode 
in which they should be taught, 151. Lesson on the Peacock, with engraving, 153. 
Lesson on the pliilosophical toy termed the Sagacious Sunn, with remarks, 154. 
Ij«»s.s()n fi>r the advanced classes — description of volcanoes, with engravings, 156. 
Questions nu the less<»n, 158. Manner in which such questions should be formed 
and arranged, 1('>0. Sets of miscellaneous (piestions, 160. Lessons on objects, 161 
— 163. SKcrioN II Writing and Composition. — Mr. Buchanan's plan for teach- 
ing writing on slates, (with a cut,) 163. Professor Jacotot's plan, 164. Specimens 



CONTENTS. IX 

of sentiments and statements of facts for copy lines, 1 65. Mode of training the 
young in the art of composition, 166— 168.— Section III. Drawing.— Mode of pro- 
cedure in learning this art, 168. Fancy landscapes, &c. should be discarded ; 
drawing from the objects of nature and art, 169. Utility of this accomplishment, 
170.— Section IV. Arithmetic.— Mode of conveying ideas of numbers; the rela- 
tive value of moneif ; the measures of length and capacity, of time, and the divis- 
ions of the circle, "(with figures,) 171—175. Sensible illustration of arithmetical 
operations, (with cuts,) 176—179. Illustration of the vahie of fractions, 179. Mis- 
cellaneous hints, 180. Section V. Grammar. — Absurdities in relation to this sub- 
ject; Lord Kaime's opinion on our mode of teaching grammar, 182. Simple mode 
of communicating the elements of grammar, 184 — 186. Origin of language, sug- 
gests the proper method of teaching it, 187. Fundamental rules o{ syntax; com- 
plexity of some of our " English Grajnmars," 188 — 190. General remarks, 190. 

Section VI. Geography. — Utility of this science, 191. Deficiencies in the mode 
of teaching it, 192. Mode of proving the globular form of the earth, illustrated 
with figures, 192 — 195 Mode of conveying" an impressive idea of its magnitude, 
195. Quantity of solid matter it contains ; how many mountains, such as Etna, 
would be required to form a mass equal to the earth, l96. Diversified scenery on 
the earth's surface, quantity of water in the rivers and seas, &c. 198. Projections 
and delineations requisite for illustrating Geography, 199. Maps exhibiting the 
ranges of mountains ; the proportional length and breadth of rivers; comparative 
size of countries, lakes, and seas ; Isothermal charts; charts of geographical Zoology; 
chart of moral and religious geography, &c. ; views of cities, grottos, &c. ; slate 
globes; delineations of the comparative heights of mountains; vvax models of par- 
ticular countries, &c. 200 — 203. Mode of describing countries, 203. Geographical 
class-books, what they should contain, 204. Directions for commencing this study, 
205. Characteristics of certain Geographical school-books lately published in 
America, 205. Section VII. Geology. — Its practical utility, 206. Classification 
of the rocks and strata of the globe, illustrated with a plate, 207. Specimens for 
illustrating geological facts ; books on Geology, 208. — Section VIII. Astronomy. — 
Object and utility of this science, 210. Mode of communicating to the young a 
knowledge of celestial phenomena, 210. Observations on the motion of the sun, 
and the pAases of the moon ; the principal stars and constellations; apparent motion 
of the celestial vault; apparent annual motion of the sun; measures of the celes- 
tial sphere, 211 — 215. Apparent motion of the planets ; experiment which solves 
the apparent irregularities, 215. Proofs of the Earth's diurnal rotation, 217; of its 
annual revolution, 218. Additional proof exhibited by the Equatorial telescope 
and orrery, 219. Mode of explaining the variety of seasons, 220. Manner of ex- 
hibiting the phenomena of the planets, and the magnifying powers best adapted to 
this purpose, 221. Circumstances to be attended to in exhibiting the moon through 
a telescope, 222. Mode of exhibiting the solar spots, 223. Imperfect conceptions 
conveyed by orreries and planetariums, 223. Manner of representing the propor- 
tional magnitudes and distances of the planets, 224. Mode of explaining a parallax, 
illustrated by figures, 226. Moral lessons deducible from this science, 227. Books 
on Astronomy; Burrett's "Geography of the Heavens," &c. 228. 

Section IX. Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry. — Departments of Experi- 
mental Philosophy, 228. Mechanical powers ; illustrations of the lever, &c. 229. 
Experiments illustrative of Hydrosfafical principles, (with figures,) 230 — 232. Sim- 
ple experiments illustrative of Pneumatical subjects; pressure, elasticity, and com,' 
pressibility of air ; principle of the diving-bell ; syphons; effects of the expansion 
of air, (fee. (with figures,) 2.32 — 238. Methods of cutting glass tubes and bending 
them for syphons, 238. Optical experiments, for explaining the principles of tele- 
scopes and microscopes, 239. Description of a (^«a^o??aZ eye-piece, 241. Camera 
obscura, on a large scale, 241. Phantasmagoria ; solar microscope : manner of pro- 
curing animalcula, 242. How a compound microscope may be formed from a com- 
mon telescopic eye-piece, 243. Experiments with concave mirrors, 243 ; illusions 
produced by them, 245. General remarks on philosophical apparatus, 246. Che- 
mical subjects and apparatus ; Books on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, 246 — 
247. — Section X. Mathematics. — General remarks on the plan and order in which 
a knowledge of this subject should be communicated to young persons, 247 — 250. — 
Section XI. Phi/siology.— Inconsistency of omitting tliis department in a general 



X CONTENTS. 

course of education, 250. Evils which arise from ignorance of this subject, 251. — 
Distortions of the human frame caused by absurd practices, ilkistrated by cuts, 252. 
Means by which a general knowledge of the human system might be communica- 
ted, 253. — Figure exhibiting the thorax and abdomen, 254. — Evidences of desigjiin 
the human fabric, 255. — Practical purposes to which a knowledge of Physiology 
might be applied, 255. — Section XII. Logic, or the Art of Reaamiing: Utility of 
this subject, 256. — Outline of a comprehensive system of Logic, 257. — Popular Lo- 
gic — examples of reasoning, with remarks, 258 — 262. — Subjects for exercising the 
reasoning }X)vvcrs, 262. Anecdotes of Gassendi, when a boy, and his mode of rea- 
soning with his companions, v^itJi an evgravirig, 263. — Analysis of Gassendi's rea- 
soning, 2()3. — Reasoning to prove that "air exists" — that "all should enjoy a moral 
and intellectual education" — that " men should love one another," 265. — Sources 
of Error illustrated, 267. — -Sop/rtsm-s illustrated, 269. — Particular species of false 
reasoning, 270. — Importance of an early exercise of the rational faculty — evils 
which have arisen from false reasoning, 271. — Diabolical reasoning — reasoning by 
physical force — by torture — by fines and imprisonments — reasoning of persecutors, 
of mobs, &c. Powerful infliience of Gold in producing conviction, 273. — Section 
XIII. Natural Theology — An appropriate study for the young, 273. Summary of 
subjects and facts connected with this study, 274. Books on Natural Theology, 
275. Olfier departments of knowledge hriejly noticed. Natural Ilistorv', Botany, Po- 
litical economy. Vocal music. Domestic economy, 276 — 277. Bodily exercises — 
amusements — and excursions, 278. Female education — illustrious females — energy 
of the female mind, and its influence in society, 279. — Prevailing misconceptions, 
28L Remarks on a hackneyed sentiment of Mr. Pope, 281. — Reasons for univer- 
sal instruction, 283. _ 

CHAPTER VIL 

Moral and Religious Instruction, 284. 

Instruction in the knowledge of the Deity, 284. Mode of illustrating the Divine 
perfections, exemplified in reference to the Wisdom and the Immensity of God, 285 
— 288. — Instruction in the history of the Divine dispensations — characteristics of 
sacred history — religion to be taught chiefly from the Scriptures — doctrines and 
precepts of Christiauitj' — propriety of a specific application of Scriptural precepts 
to the conduct of the young. 288 — 292. Moral training particularly exemplified, 
292 — 296. Manner in which the young should be directed in the study of the 
Scriptures, 296. Scripture class-book, 497. 

CHAPTER Vin. 

Sabbath Schools. 

Defects which adhere to the present system of Sabbath Schools, 299. — Qualifi- 
cations of Sabbath School Teachers, and the subjects with which they should be 
acquainted, 299. — Necessity of their being trained to their oflice, 301. — Depart- 
ments of knowledge they should study — Sacred Histor>', Ancient Geography, Bib- 
lical Criticism, ^(\ 302 — 306. General remarks on Sabbath Schools — practices to 
be avoided, &c. 306. Books on this subject, 307. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Schools for Young persons from the age of fourteen to the age of twenty or 

upwards, 308. 

Necessity of such institutions, 308. Subjects to which this class of young per- 
sons should be directed, 309. Pre-rcquisites to their establishment, 311. 

CHAPTER X. 

On the Qualifications of Teachers, and Seminaries for their instruc- 
tion, 311. 

Deficiency in the Qualifications of Teachers, 311 — honourable nature of the oflice 



CONTENTS. XI 

— necessity of training, 312. Precepforal Colleges, and the subjects to be studied, 
313. Examination of candidates, 31.5. Importance of training candidates for 
Teachers 316. Infant School Teachers — Prussian Normal schools, 317 — 318 

CHAPTER XI. 

On the Practicability of establishing seminaries for intellectual educa- 
tion, 319. 

Number of schools requisite to be estabHshed in Scotland and England, 319 — 
321. — Expense of estabhshing them, 321. Importance of such institutions, and the 
necessity for philanthropic exertions, 322. Liberality under the Jewish economy, 
323. Enormous sums expended in war, 324. Pension list, 325. Contested elec- 
tions, 326. Savings which might be made in personal expenditure, 327. Sums 
spent on spirituous liquors, 328. No want of resources — appeal to Christians, 328. 
Contributions of the Jews, and predictions in relation to the Christian Church, 329. 
Means requisite for exciting attention to this subject, 330. Limited views of edu- 
cation taken by statesmen, 331. Voluntary and compulsory education, 332. 

CHAPTER XII. 

On the UTILITY of establishing seminaries for universal education, 333. 

I. They would tend to the prevention of Crime. Number of thieves in London — 
trials at the Old Bailey — erroneous views of legislation — inefficiency of severe pun- 
ishments — juvenile delinquency — deficiency of Education in England and Scot- 
land, 333 — 338. Beneficial results of education — Schools, publications, &c. in Bos- 
ton and New- York, 339 — 341. Expense of punishing crime, 342. II. Universal 
education would elevate the general character of man, 343. Contrast between 
the majority of mankind, and celestial intelligences, 344. Native dignity of man, 
345 — security of property dependent on education, 345. III. Universal educa- 
tion introductory to the Millennium, 346. Manner in which this era will be intro- 
duced, 347 — when it will commence, 348. Exertions preceding the Millennium, 
349. Appeal to Christians, 350. Christian generosity and heroism, 351. Story of 
St. Pierre, 352. — Contributions for the tabernacle and temple, 352. The Pilgrims 
of New England, 353. 

CHAPTER XIIL 

Principles on which a National system of Education should he estab- 
lished. 

Difficulties — Brougham's "Education Bill" of 1821, 354 — Liberal views in the 
establishment of education, 355 — Parochial system, 357. — Superintendence of edu- 
cation, 358 — Mode of religions instruction, 359. Efficiency of Scriptural instruc- 
tion, 360 — Harmony of sectaries in America, 361. Proposed plan of establishing 
education, 362. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Maxims, or First Principles in Education, 362. 

Ideas should precede words — tasks — exhiliarating associations — principle of emu- 
lation — corporal punishments — confinement — fixing the attention, &c. 362 — 367. 

CHAPTER XV 

Mechanics^ Institutions, 367. 

The author's communications on this subject, in 1814, 368. Condensed view of 
them, 368. Admission of members, 369. Subjects of discussion, and mode of 
conducting it, 369—371. Funds of the Society, and thei/ appl cation. 372. Publi- 



xii CONTENTS. 

lications of the Society, 374. Correspondence with other Societies, 375. Defects 
in the objects of Mechanics' Institutions, as presently constituted. Suggestions for 
their improvement, 370 — 379. 



PART II. 

MISCELLANEOU.S HINTS IN REFERENCE TO THE DIFFUSION OF KNOW- 
LEDGE AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY, 380. 

Introd)ictory remarks, 380. I. Improvements in Preaching, 381. Comprehen- 
sive range of subjects, 382. Sacred Preachers, Isaiah, Paul, Messiah, &;c. 383. 
Domestic education, a topic for preaching, 386. Illustration of Divine subjects by 
sensible objects, 386. Education of candidates for the ministry, 388. Subjects for 
pubHc worship, and strictures on certain modes of singing, 390. — II. Union of the 
Christian Church. 392. — III. Scriptures illustrated by engravings — strictures on 
certain Scripture prints, 393. — IV. Abridgment of the hours of labour necessary to 
improvement — plan suggested, 395. — V. Knowledge promoted by public exhibi- 
tions, 397. Large concave mirror, Chinese lights exhibited at Paisley, &c. 398, — 
Vf. Erection of Observatories, &c. 399. — VII. Improvement of townis and villages, 
400. Wretched slate of some of our cities — narrow streets — evils of great cities — 
hints suggested in relation to improvements in towns and villages, 402 — 404. Plan 
of a small town, with description, 405. — VIII. Itinerating Libraries — their origin, 
plan, and effects, 406. — IX. Delineations and inscriptions on articles of furniture, 
408. — X. Changes requisite in certain laws, regulations and customs, 409. — Taxes 
on knowledge — postages — position of the names of ships — perquisites of waiters, 
postilions, &ic.— hissing in public meetings — Defects of our civil and criminal code, 
409 — 412. — XI. Friendly intercourse between nations — Excise restrictions — Anec- 
dote of Mr. Davidson, 413. — XII. Intellectual and religious improvement of Sea- 
men — Number of, in the British service, 413. — XIII. Formation of societies for pro- 
moting improvements, 415. — XIV. Counteraction of Avarice, 415 — Its irrationality 
and degrading tendency, 416 — Recapitulation and Conclusion, 417. Prospects of 
improvements in future ages — Preludes of a more auspicious and enlightened era 
— Means by which its approach may be accelerated, 418 — 422. 

Appendix, 423. Insanity from excessive study. 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



PAGE 

Simple dress of a little girl, 80 

Figures of the true shape of the foot, and of shoes, 82 

Arithmeticon, 112 

Plan and accommodations of a village school, 130 

Elevation of do., 131 

Two figures representing the new optical machine, 136 

The peacock 153 

Interior of the crater of Vesuvius, 157 

Vesuvius and Naples, ib. 

Mode of teaching writing, 164 

Figures illustrating notation, 172 

Seven figures illustrative of weights and measures, 174 

Nine do. illustrating square measure, 176, 177 

Figures illustrative of evolution, 178, 179 

Six do. illustrating fractions, 180 

Figure illustrative of the earth's rotundity, 193 

Do. to illustrate the roundness of the earth from north to south, ib. 

Plate illustrative of geology, 209 

Figure for explaining a parallax, 225 

Quadrant of the heavens for illustrating do., 226 

Hydrostatical figures: — 

Fig. 1. For showing the level of water, 231 

— 2. Hydrostatical paradox, ib. 

— 3. Jets and fountains, ib. 

— 4. Velocities of spouts of water, 232 

Figures illustrating Pneumatics : — 

Fig. 1. Explaining the diving bell, 235 

— 2. The pressure of the atmosphere, 236 

— 3. Lateral pressure of do ib. 

— 4. Mode of conveying water over a rising ground, ib. 

— 5. Do. from one hill to another, 237 

— 6. Effects of the expansion of air, 238 

Optical figures : — 

Fig. 1. Principle of the phantasmagoria, &c., 239 

— 2. Diagonal eye-piece, 241 

— 2. Camera ol«cura, on a large scale, 242 

Figures connected with Physiology: — 

Fig. Land 2. Outline and skeleton of the Venus de Medicis, 252 

— 3. and 4. Do. of a modern fashionable lady, ib. 

— 5. Contents of the Thorax and Abdomen 254 

Figures illustrative of reasoning 259 

Gassendi demonstrating the motion of the clouds, 264 

Concave speculum used as a telescope, 398 

plan of a small town, &c., 405 

2 



ON THE 

MENTAL ILLUMINATION 

AND 

MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Before we attempt to accomplish any great and extensive en- 
terprise, it is requisite to ascertain, in the first place, whether the 
object we propose be attainable, and, in the next place, whether, 
if attained, it would be productive of beneficent effects. If these 
points are not ascertained, previous to our engaging in any undertak- 
ing, we may exert our intellectual faculties, and active powers, and 
spend our time, our wealth, and our labour, to no purpose, and in 
the end meet with nothing but disappointed expectations. The 
history of the world, and even the annals of science, would furnish 
hundreds of facts to corroborate this position. The object of the 
Alchemists was to transmute earthy substances and the baser 
metals into gold, and, by the fortunate labour of some happy day, 
when the stars were propitious, to realize vast treasures of wealth, 
to enable them to live in splendour and opulence during the 
remaining period of their lives. In this visionary pursuit, which, 
for several centuries, occupied the attention of princes, statesmen, 
ecclesiastics, physicians, and experimenters of various descriptions, 
thousands of fortunes were irretrievably wasted, and the dupes of 
this fallacious science kept in perpetual anxiety, and amused with 
vain and unfounded expectations. Even although such schemes 
had been practicable — which experience proves they are not — it 
would not be difficult to show, that, had they been successful, they 
would have produced more misery than happiness among man- 
kind. The study of the heavens, with the view of foretelling 
future events, and the destinies of men, from the different aspects 
of the planets and the signs of the Zodiac, was another scheme 
which, for many ages, absorbed the attention of kings, legislators, 
popes, cardinals, and even men of science, as well as that of the 
illiterate vulgar, — and, in numerous instances, no public affair of 
any importance was undertaken, without first consulting the stars 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

This fallacious art has likewise been proved impracticable, and 
inconsistent with the peace and happiness of mankind. The 
researches which were long made after the panacea, or universal 
remedy for all disorders — the search for an universal menstruum 
and ferment — the search for a medicine which will confer immor- 
tality even in this world — the attempts to discover mines by 
means of divining-rods — and to cure palsies, inflammations, ob- 
structions, and other disorders, by animal magnetism and metallic 
tractors — and, above all, the attempt to conduct mankind to hap- 
piness by discarding the idea of a Divine Being and every species 
of religion from the plans proposed — with hundreds of similar 
schemes, — may be regarded nearly in the same light as the fool- 
ish arts of astrologers and alchemists, and could easily be shown 
to be equally unprofitable and vain. 

In endeavouring to promote a general diffusion of knowledge 
among the various ranks of society, it becomes us likewise to 
inquire, whether the attempt would be accompanied with such 
beneficial effects as to warrant the labour and expense which 
must necessarily attend such an enterprise — and, whether any 
insurmountable difficulties stand in the way of its accomplishment. 
There are not wanting, even amidst the light of science which is 
now shining around us, many individuals in the higher classes of 
society who are bold enough to insinuate, that an increase of 
knowledge would be injurious to the lower ranks of the commu- 
nity — that its accomplishment is both undesirable and impracti- 
cable — that the moral world will proceed onward as it has hitherto 
done — that there is no possibility of meliorating the condition of 
the great mass of mankind, — and that it is altogether Utopian to 
attempt to direct the moral and intellectual energies of the human 
race into any other channel than that in which they have hitherto 
been accustomed to flow. Such insinuations evidently flow from 
a spirit of misanthropy, and are intended, if possible, to fix the 
moral world in a quiescent state, as the material world was sup- 
posed to be in former times, and to damp every exertion that is 
now making to promote the improvement and the happiness of 
our species. They are likewise inconsistent with the dictates of 
Divine Revelation, which plainly declare that " the knowledge of 
Jehovah shall cover the earth, as the waters cover the channels 
of the seas," and that " all shall know him, from the least to the 
greatest." 

In a work lately published, I have endeavoured to illustrate, at 
considerable length, some of the advantages which wovld result 
from a general diffusion of knowledge, which, I presume, will 
tend to substantiate the position, that an increase of knowledge 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

among all ranks would be productive of an increase of enjoyment. 
If a more extensive diffusion of knowledge would have a tendency 
to dissipate those superstitious notions and false alarms which 
have so long enslaved the minds of men — to prevent numerous 
diseases and fatal accidents — to accelerate the improvement of 
the physical sciences — to increase the pleasures and enjoyments 
of mankind — to promote the progress of the liberal and mechani- 
cal arts — to administer to the comforts of general society — to pre- 
pare the way for new inventions and discoveries — to expand our 
views of the attributes and moral government of the Deity — to 
advance the interests of morality — to prepare the mind for the 
pleasures and employments of the future world — to promote a 
more extensive acquaintance with the evidences, facts, and doc- 
trines, of Revelation — to prepare the way for the establishment 
of peace and harmony among the nations, and to promote the 
union and the extension of the Christian church ; — if such posi- 
tions can be fairly proved, every philanthropist and every rational 
and well-directed mind will readily admit, that a more general 
cultivation of the human intellect, and a more extensive ditlusion 
of rational information, are highly desirable, and would be pro- 
ductive of the most auspicious and beneficial results, in reference 
both to the present interests and the future prospects of mankind. 
With regard to the practicahilify of this object, no rational 
doubt can be entertained, if the moral machinery requisite for its 
accomplishment were once thoroughly set in motion. Whatever 
Man has hitherto achieved, Man may still accomjylish. If minds, 
once feeble and benighted, and ignorant as the wild ass's colt, 
have, by proper training, been raised near the highest pitch of 
moral and intellectual attainments, other minds, by similar train- 
ing, may be elevated to the same degree of perfection. If nations, 
once rude and ignorant, as the Britons formerly were, have been 
raised to a state of civilization and refinement, and excited to 
cultivated the arts and sciences, the same means by which this 
object was accomplished, may still be employed in other cases to 
produce the same efTect. If several portions, however small, of 
any civilized community, have been brought to a high state of 
intellectual improvement, it is evident, that the greater part, if not 
the whole, may be advanced into a similar state. It only requires 
that the means of instruction be simplified and extended, and 
brought within the reach of every one whose faculties are capa- 
ble of cultivation. That this object has never yet been effected, is 
not owing to its impracticability, or to any insuperable obstacles 
which lie in the way of its accomplishment ; but because the at- 
tejition of mankind has never yet been thoroughly directed to it : 

2* 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

and because the means requisite for promoting it have never been 
employed on a scale proportionate to the extent and magnitude of 
the enterprise. The influential classes of society, in every coun- 
try, have been more absorbed in the pursuits of avarice, ambition, 
war, devastation, and sensual gratifications, than in meliorating the 
physical and moral condition of their species. The tenth part 
of the treasures which have been wasted in the prosecution of 
such mad and immoral pursuits, had it been properly directed, 
would have been more than sufficient to have brought the means 
of instruction within the reach of every individual of the human 
race, and to have transformed the barren wastes of every country 
into the appearance of a terrestrial paradise. There is no Go- 
vernment under heaven, so far as we are acquainted, (if Prussia 
and the United States of America be not excepted,) where the in- 
struction of the great mass of the people forms a prominent and 
specific object in its administration. On the contrary, in several 
instances, even within the limits of Europe, it is well known, that 
the intellectual instruction of the lower orders is prohibited by a 
law.* Even in Great Britain, where the light of science shines 
with peculiar effulgence, the exertions of philantropists have been 
damped in their attempts to diffuse knowledge among the people ; 
heavy taxes have been imposed on the means of its diffusion ; 
men of knowledge have been persecuted and neglected, while 
men devoted to war and bloodshed have been loaded with wealth, 
and exalted to the highest stations of dignity and honour ; no na- 
tional scheme, supported by the state, has ever yet been devised 
for its universal propagation among all ranks, and no sums set 
apart for this purpose, while the treasures of the nation have been 
wasted in extravagance, and, in too many instances, devoted to 
the support of vice, tyranny, and intolerance. 

But we trust that the breath of a new spirit is now beginning 
to animate the councils of the nation and the great body of the 
people; — and when the means within our power of extending the 
blessings of knowledge shall be employed with energy and judg- 
ment, we may expect, ere long, to behold a generation rising up, 
in intelligence and moral action, superior to all the generations 
that have gone before it — improving the soil, adorning the land- 
scape, promoting the progress of the useful arts, enlarging the 

* For example, — A royal Sardinian Edict, published in 1825, enjoins, 
" that henceforth no person shall learn to read or write who cannot prove 
the possession of property above the value of 1500 livres," or about 
JE62 lOs. sterling. And it is well known, that the greater part of the lower 
classes in Russia, Austria, and Poland, are, from their situation, debarred 
from the benefits of instruction. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

boundaries of science, diffusing the blessings of Christianity over 
the globe, giving an impulse to every philanthropic movement, 
counteracting the spirit of war, ambition, and licentiousness, cul- 
tivating peace and friendly correspondence with surrounding na- 
tions, and forming an impregnable bulwark around every govern- 
ment where the throne is established in truth and in righteousness. 
To state and illustrate the various means by which a more ex- 
tensive diffusion of knowledge may be effected, and the general 
improvement of society promoted, is the main object of the fol- 
lowing pages, in which the state of education in our country, and 
the principles on which it ought to be conducted, shall occupy 
our first, and our chief attention. 



(20) 

PART I. 

ON EDUCATION. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

There is, perhaps, nothing of more importance to the human 
race, and which has a more direct bearing on the happiness of 
all ranks, than the cultivation of the mental faculties, and the ac- 
quisition of substantial knowledge. Whether we consider man 
as a transitory inhabitant of this lower world, or as in a state of 
progression to another region of existence — it is of the utmost 
importance, that he be thoroughly acquainted with the Great 
Author of his existence, with the general structure of the uni- 
verse in which he is placed, with the relations in which he stands 
to his fellow-men, and the other beings which surround him, with 
the duties he ought to discharge to his Creator, and to his own 
species, with the nature of that eternal world to which he is des- 
tined, and with that train of action and of contemplation which 
will prepare him for the enjoyments of a future and eternal state. 
All the other objects which can employ the attention of the hu- 
man mind must evidently be viewed as in some degree subordinate 
to these. For, on the acquisition of the knowledge to which we 
allude, and the corresponding course of conduct to which it leads, 
depends the happiness of man, considered both as an indivi- 
dual, and as a member of the great family to which he belongs — 
his happiness both in the present life, and in the life to come. 

Nothing, however, appears to have been more overlooked, in 
the general arrangements of society, than the selection of the 
most proper means by which such important ends are to be accom- 
plished. In those nations and societies which, in their progress 
from barbarity, have arrived at only a half-civilized state, the 
acquisition of the means of subsistence, and of those comforts 
which promote their sensitive enjoyment, forms almost the exclu- 
sive object of pursuit ; and it is not before they have arrived at a 
certain stage of civilization, that moral and intellectual improve- 
ment becomes an object of general attention. And, even in those 
nations which have advanced farthest in the path of science and 
of social refinement, the cultivation of the human mind, and the 
details of education, are not considered in that serious light which 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 21 

their importance demands. Almost every thing else is attempted 
to be accurately adjusted, while the moral and intellectual improve- 
ment of the mass of the community is left either to the direction 
of chance, or to the injudicious schemes of weak and ignorant 
minds. Every one who has acquired a smattering of English 
grammar and arithmetic, and who can write his own name, con- 
ceives that he is qualified to conduct the intellectual improvement 
of the young; the most illiterate and superficial pedants have 
intruded themselves into the office of teachers ; those who have 
never had the least experience in the art of teaching, nor have 
studied its principles, have assumed the prerogative of dictating 
the arrangements and discipline of a school ; and hence, the office 
of a teacher of youth, which is one of the most important and 
respectable in the social system, has frequently been considered 
as connected with the meanest talents, and with the lowest gra- 
dations in society. 

Great Britain has long held a distinguished rank among the 
nations of Europe in the scale of science and of civilization, and on 
account of the numerous seminaries of instruction which have 
been established in every quarter of the island. Excepting Prus- 
sia, the United States of America, and the mountains and vales 
of Switzerland, there are few countries in which education is 
more generally appreciated and more widely diffijsed than in the 
northern district of Great Britain ; and the effects produced by 
our literary and scholastic establishments are apparent in the 
desire for knowledge, and the superior intelligence which charac- 
terize the different ranks of our population. When we compare 
ourselves in this respect with the Russian boors, the Laplanders, 
the Calmucs, the Cossacks, or the Tartars, or even with the 
inhabitants of Naples, of Spain, or of Portugal, we seem to stand 
on an eminence to which they can scarcely hope to approach for 
a lapse of ages. On the other hand, when we compare ourselves 
with what we ought to be, as beings possessed of rational natures, 
and destined to immortality, and as surrounded with the light of 
science and of revelation, — we shall find that we are, as yet, but 
little more than just emerging from the gloom of moral depravity 
and mental darkness. When we consider the mass of depravity 
which is still hovering around us, the deplorable ignorance, the 
superstitious notions, the false conceptions in regard to many 
important truths, the evil passions, and the grovelling affections, 
which so generally prevail, we must acknowledge that much, 
much indeed, remains to be accomplished, before the great body 
of the people be thoroughly enlightened in the knowledge of all 
those subjects in which they are interested, as rational, accounta- 



22 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

ble, and immortal beings, and before they can be induced to give 
a decided preference to moral pursuits and intellectual pleasures. 
And, if this is the case in a nation designated civilized and en- 
lightened, how thick must be the darkness which broods over the 
inhabitants of other regions of the globe, how deep the moral de- 
basement into which they are sunk, and how many vigorous 
efforts must be requisite, ere they can be raised to the true dignity 
of moral and intellectual agents ! If ever this important object is 
to be ciccomplished — which the predictions of ancient prophecy 
leave us little room to doubt — it is now high time that we arouse 
ourselves from our slumbers, and engage with increased activity 
and zeal in the work of reformation and of rational instruction. 
Let us not imagine that the preaching of the gospel, in the dull 
and formal manner by which it is at present characterized, will 
effectuate this great object, without the use of all the efficient 
means of juvenile instruction we can devise. While we boast of 
the privileges of our favoured land, of the blessings of Divine 
Revelation, and of the enlightened era in which we live ; and 
while we are endeavouring to impart to distant nations the bless- 
ings of science and of the Christian religion ; — let us not forget, 
that there are thousands of the young generation around us, under 
the show of having obtained a good education, rising up in life, 
in a state of ignorance and vice, in consequence of the superficial 
and injudicious modes by which they have been tutored, and 
which prevent them from profiting by the instructions of the min- 
isters of religion. 

While the great body of mankind must necessarily be engaged 
in manual employments, and while it is essential to their happi- 
ness, as well as to their bodily subsistence, that a portion of their 
time be thus employed, — it would be a highly desirable object to 
induce upon their minds a taste for intellectual pursuits, and for 
those pure enjoyments which flow from a contemplation of the 
works and providence of the Creator, and of those moral laws 
and arrangements which he has ordained for promoting the social 
order and the eternal happiness of mankind, in which those hours 
not devoted to worldly business might be occasionally employed. 
As man is a being compounded of a corporeal organized structure, 
and a system of intellectual powers, it evidently appears to have 
been the intention of the Creator that he should be frequently 
employed both in action and in contemplation. But when his 
physical powers only are set in motion, and the principal object 
of his activity is to supply the wants of his animal frame, he can 
be considered as little superior to the lower orders of animated 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 23 

existence, and must, in a great measure, frustrate the end of his 
Creator in bestowing upon him the faculties of his rational nature. 
In order to raise mankind from the state of mental darkness 
and moral degradation into which they have fallen, it is essentially- 
requisite, that the utmost care be bestowed on the proper direction 
of the youthful mind, in its first excursions in the physical and 
moral world ; for when it has proceeded a certain length, amidst 
the mists of ignorance and the devious ways of vice, it is ex- 
tremely difficult, if not impossible, to recall it from its wanderings 
to the path of wisdom and felicity. Instructions, not merely in 
reference to sounds and accents, and accurate pronunciation, but 
also in relation to important facts, and the various properties and 
relations of objects around them, must be communicated at. an 
early age ; and not merely the names, but the ideas, of the most 
interesting objects in the physical and intellectual world, must be 
conveyed by a succession of well-defined mental imagery, and 
sensible illustrations, so as to arrest and impress the juvenile 
mind, and excite its energies and affections in the pursuit of know- 
ledge and virtue. Without an attention to this important object, 
the business of elementary instruction appears to regard man 
rather as a mere machine than as a rational and immortal being, 
and seems to be little short of an insult offered to the human un- 
derstanding. The ultimate object of all scholastic instruction 
ought undoubtedly to be, to convey to youthful minds substantial 
knowledge, to lead them gradually into a view of the nature and 
qualities of the objects with which they are surrounded, of the 
general appearances, motions, and machinery of external nature, 
of the moral relations in which they stand to the Great Author of 
their existence, and to one another, and of the various duties 
which flow from these relations, — to direct their affections, tem- 
pers, and passions, in such a channel as will tend to promote their 
own comfort, and the harmony of general society, and to prepare 
them for the nobler employments of an immortal existence. Such 
moral and intellectual instructions «ought to go hand in hand with 
the acquisition of the various combinations of sounds and sylla- 
bles, and with the mechanical exercises of writing and ciphering ; 
otherwise the beneficial consequences, which should result from 
instruction in the common branches of education, will be few and 
unimportant. Whether the prevailing modes of education in this 
country be calculated to promote the ends now stated, will appear, 
when we come to investigate the range of our elementary instruc- 
tion, and the circumstances connected with the manner of its 
communication. Before proceeding to this investigation, I shall 
take a rapid view of the present state of education in different 
civilized nations. 



24 HISTORV OP EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER I. 
Present state of Education in different Countries, 

For a long period, even after the introduction of Christianity 
among the nations of Europe, the education of the young seems 
to have been in a great measure neglected. The records of his- 
tory afford us no details of any particular arrangements that were 
made either by the church or the state for promoting this impor- 
tant object. During the long reign of Papal superstition and 
tyranny, which lasted for nearly a thousand years, the instruction 
of the young appears to have been entirely set aside, or, at least, 
to have formed no prominent object of attention. The common 
people grew up, from infancy to manhood, ignorant of the most 
important subjects, having their understandings darkened by su- 
perstition, their moral powers perverted, and their rational facul- 
ties bewildered and degraded, by an implicit submission to the 
foolish ceremonies and absurdities inculcated by their ecclesiastical 
dictators ; and even many in the higher ranks of life, distinguished 
for their wealth and influence in society, were so untutored in 
the first elements of learning, that they could neither read nor 
write. Ignorance was one of the foundations on which the splen- 
dour and tyranny of the Romish hierarchy were built, and there- 
fore it would have been contrary to its policy, and the schemes it 
had formed of universal domination, to have concerted any mea- 
sures for the diffusion of knowledge and the enlightening of man- 
kind. We read of no nation or community, during the dark 
ages, that devised plans for the rational and religious instruction 
of youth, excepting a poor, oppressed, and despised people " of 
whom the world was not worthy" — the pious and intelligent, but 
persecuted Waldenses. It appears that a system of instruction 
prevailed among these inhabitants of the valleys of Piedmont, 
seven hundred years ago, more rational and efficient than has yet 
been established in the British Isles. 

It was not till the era of the Reformation that seminaries for 
the instruction of the young began to be organized and perma- 
nently established. Prior to this period, indeed, colleges and 
universities had been founded in most of the countries of Christen- 
dom ; but the instructions communicated in those seats of learning 
were chiefly confined to the priestly order, and to the sons of the 
nobility who aspired afler the highest and most lucrative offices 
under the hierarchy of Rome. Their influence was scarcely felt 
by the mass of the people ; and the origin of the earliest of these 
seminaries cannot be traced much beyond the beginning of the 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 25 

thirteenth century. These new estabh'shments, however, with the 
academical honours they conferred on proficients in knowledge, 
gave a powerful impulse to the study of science, and greatly 
increased the number of those who devoted themselves to the pur- 
suits of learning. It is said, that, in the year 1262, there were 
no less than ten thousand students in the university of Bologna, 
although Law was the only science taught in it at that time ; and 
that in the year 1340, there were thirty thousand students in the 
university of Oxford. But the education of the middling and lower 
classes of society was still miserably neglected. Even in those 
countries which have since been distinguished for scholastic esta- 
blishments, a universal apathy seems to have prevailed, in regard 
to the acquisition of knowledge, and of the first elements of edu- 
cation. In the year 1494, a few years before Luther began to 
assail the Romish Church, it was enacted by the Parliament of 
Scotland, " that all barons and substantial freeholders throughout 
the realm should send their children to school, from the age of 
six to nine years, and then to other seminaries, to be instructed 
in the laws, that the country might be possessed of persons pro- 
perly qualified to discharge the duties of sheriffs, and other civil 
offices." Those who neglected to comply with the provisions of 
this statute, were subjected to a penalty of twenty pounds Scots. 
This enactment evidently implies, that even the influential classes 
of society, at that period, paid little attention to the education 
even of the male branches of their families, and, of course, that 
those in the lowest ranks must have been generally, if not alto- 
gether deprived of this inestimable privilege. It was only after 
the passing of this act, as Dr. Henry remarks, that several indi- 
viduals began to be distinguished for their classical acquirements, 
and that learning was much more generally diffiased throughout 
the country. 

At the time of the revival of learning, soon after the Reforma- 
tion, a new impulse was given to the human mind, a bold spirit 
of inquiry was excited in the laity, when the vices of the Romish 
clergy were exposed, and their impositions detected ; the absurd- 
ity of many tenets and practices authorized by the church was 
discovered ; the futility of the arguments by which illiterate 
monks attempted to defend them was perceived ; the mystic the- 
ology of the schools was set aside, as a system equally unedifying 
and obscure ; the study of ancient literature was revived ; the 
attention was directed to the siacred Scriptures, as the only stand- 
ard of religious truth, the legendary tales of monkish superstition 
were discarded, a taste for useful knowledge was induced, — and 
from that period, seminaries for the instruction and improvement 

3 



26 STATE OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA. 

of the juvenile mind, began to be gradually established in many 
of the countries of Europe ; — although they are still miserably 
deficient both in point of number, and in the range of instruction 
which they profess to communicate. — The following is a brief 
view of the present state of education in various countries : — 

United States of America * — Although the system of education 
has never yet arrived nearly at perfection, in any nation, yet the 
inhabitants of the United States may be considered, on the whole, 
as the best educated people in the world. With a degree of libe- 
rality and intelligence which reflects the highest honour on their 
character, they have made the most ample provision for the ele- 
mentary instruction of all classes ; and most of their arrange- 
ments, in reference to this object, appear to be dictated by disin- 
terested benevolence, and by liberal and enlarged views of what 
is requisite to promote the moral improvement of society. In the 
New States, o?ie square mile in every township, or one thirty- 
sixth part of all the lands, has been devoted to the support of 
common schools, besides seven entire townships for the endow- 
ment of larger seminaries. In the older States, grants of land 
have frequently been made for the same purposes; but in New 
England all sorts of property are assessed for the support of the 
primary schools, which are established in every township. — The 
following extract from a speech of Mr. Webster, a distinguished 
member of Congress, in a convention held at Massachusetts in 
1821, displays the principles and practical operation of this sys- 
tem, and the grand design it is intended to accomplish : — " For 
the purpose of public instruction," said this illustrious senator, 
" we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his pro- 
perty ; and we look not to the question, whether he himself have 
or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he 
pays ; we regard it as a wise and liberal system of police, by 
which property and life, and the peace of society, are secured. 
We hope to excite a feeling of respectability, and a sense of cha- 
racter, by enlarging the capacities and increasing the sphere of 
intellectual enjoyment. By general instruction, we seek, so far 
as possible, to purify the moral atmosphere ; to keep good senti- 
ments uppermost, and to turn the strong current of feeling and 
opinion, as well as the censures of law, and the denunciations of 
religion, against immorality and crime. We hope for a security 
beyond the l^w and above the law, in the prevalence of enlight- 
ened and well-principled moral sentiment. We hope to continue 
and to prolong the time, when, in the villages and farm-houses 
of New England, there may be undisturbed sleep within unbarred 
doors. We do not indeed expect all men to be philosophers or 



STATE OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA* 27 

statesmen ; but we confidently trust, that by the diffusion of gene- 
ral knowledge and good and virtuous sentiments, the political 
fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and over- 
throw, as against the slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. 
We rejoice that every man in this community may call all pro- 
perty his own, so far as he has occasion for it to furnish for him- 
self and his children the blessings of religious instruction, and the 
elements of knowledge. This celestial and this earthly light he 
is entitled to by the fundamental laws. It is every poor man's 
undoubted birthright — it is the great blessing which this consti- 
tution has secured to him — it is his solace in life — and it may 
M'ell be his consolation in death, that his country stands pledged, 
by the faith which it has plighted to all its citizens, to protect his 
children from ignorance, barbarity, and vice." 

These are noble sentiments and views, worthy of being adopted 
and reduced to practice by every government under heaven; and 
we trust the period is not far distant when the British senate, and 
every other legislative assembly in Europe, shall have their 
attention directed to the arrangement of a system of universal 
education^ on an expansive and liberal scale, and with such gene- 
rous and disinterested objects in view. 

There are no States in the Union, nor perhaps in any country 
in the world, so amply provided with the means of instruction, as 
the States of New York and New England. In New York, in 
1829, there were no less than 8609 common schools, affording 
education to 468,205 young persons, which was rather more than 
a fourth part of the entire population ! and it is probable, that, 
since that period, the number has considerably increased. In 
Scotland, which is reckoned one of the best educated countries in 
Europe, it is found, that only one in eleven, out of the entire 
population, has the benefit of education. — In New England, free 
schools have been endowed by benefactions from different indi- 
viduals, — and the funds thus bequeathed by charit}'-, or public 
spirit, have not been devoured by the cormorants of a grasping 
oligarchy, but prudently and carefully administered. — The edu- 
cation given at these schools, too, is vastly superior to what is 
obtained at our parish schools. " The general plan of education 
at the public free schools here," says Mr. Stuart,* " is not con- 
fined to mere reading, writing, arithmetic and book-keeping, and 
the ancient and modern languages, but comprehends grammar, 
mathematics, navigation, geography, history, logic, political eco- 
nomy, rhetoric, moral and natural philosophy. These schools 



* " Three Years' Residence in North America^'* 



28 STATE OF EDtJCATION IN AMERICA. 

being, as stated in the printed regulations, intended to occupy the 
young people from the age of four to seventeen, and to form a 
system of education, advancing from the lowest to the highest 
degree of improvement which can be derived from any literary 
seminaries inferior to colleges and universities, and to afford a 
practical and theoretical acquaintance with the various branches 
of useful education. There are at present in Boston, 68 free 
schools, besides 23 Sabbath schools, in all of which the poorest 
inhabitant of Boston may have his children educated, according 
to the system of education now specified, from the age of four to 
seventeen, without any expense whatever. The children of both 
sexes are freely admitted. The funds of those schools are derived 
from funds and bequests from individuals, and grants from the 
legislature and corporations ; and enable the trustees, consisting 
of twelve citizens elected by the inhabitants of each of the twelve 
wards of the city, with the mayor and eight aldermen, to give the 
teachers salaries, varying from 2500 to 800 dollars a-year. The 
assistant teachers have 600 dollars. The trustees elect their 
teachers, and vote their salaries yearly, and no preference is 
given on any principles but those of merit or skill. No expense 
whatever is incurred in these schools for the children, except in 
books. The richer classes in Boston formerly very generally 
patronized teachers of private schools, who were paid in the usual 
way ; but they now find that the best teachers are at the head of 
the public schools, and in most cases prefer them — the children 
of the highest and lowest rank enjoying the privilege, altogether 
invaluable in a free state, of being educated together. 

" In the adjoining State of Connecticut, it has been ascertained 
by actual reports, that one-third of the population of about 
275,000, attend the free schools. The result of the recent in- 
quiry into the state of education in the State of New York, which 
adjoins New England, and is almost equal to it in population, is 
very much, though not entirely the same. — It is proved by actual 
reports, that 499,434 children, out of a population of 1,900,000, 
were at the same time attending the schools, that is, a fourth 
part of the whole population. Although the public funds of New 
York State are great, these schools are not entirely free ; but free 
to all who apply for immunity from payment. The amount of 
the money paid to the teachers, by private persons, does not, 
however, amount to one-third of the whole annual expense, which 
is somewhat less than a million of dollars." 

Besides the seminaries appropriated to the instruction of the 
mass of the population, the United States contain no less than 
seventy colleges, in which the ancient and modern languages, the 



EDUCATION IN SILESIA. 29 

mathematical sciences, Natural Piiilosopliy, Clicmistry, Logic, 
Christian Theology, and other branches, arc regularly taught, as 
in the European universities ; but with more attention to the moral 
and religious conduct of the students. About the time of the 
American Revolution, in 1775, there were 10 colleges ; from 
1775 to 1800, 13 were established; from 1800 to 1814, 11 were 
added; and from 1814 to 1834, no less than 36 colleges have 
been established. In these colleges, 5500 students are prosecut- 
ing their education, in the different departments of Literature and 
Science. — The American Education Society is just now educat- 
ing 912 young men for the ministry; the Presbyterian Educa- 
tion Society has 612 students under its charge ; i\\e Northern 
Baptist Society has 250. The whole num])er at present educated 
by these Societies, including the Episcopalian, German, Lutheran, 
&c. is 2000. These are exclusive of a very large number who 
are paying the expenses of their own education, and who are 
equally pious and promising. 

It is to the numerous establishments of education — the extensive 
range of instruction they embrace — the opportunities of instruc- 
tion afforded to the lowest classes of the community — the superior 
degree of comfort they enjoy — and to the elevation of character 
promoted by their free institutions, that we are to attribute the 
non-existence, in most parts of the United States, of what is usual- 
ly termed a mob or rabble, and that depredations are less fre- 
quent, and property more secure, than in other countries. In the 
Southern States, indeed, the means of education are not so ex- 
tensive, nor has society advanced to such a state of moral and 
mental improvement, as in the Northern. The reason is obvious. 
These States, with a most glaring inconsistency^ still continue 
the abettors o^ slavery, in its most disgusting forms. More than 
one-half of their population consists of slaves, who are deemed 
unworthy of enjoying the blessings even of a common education. 
A spirit of haughtiness and domination prevails among the in- 
fluential classes, barbarous amusements among the lower; and 
Christian morals, the finer feelings of humanity, and intellectual 
acquisitions, are too frequently disregarded. 

Silesia. — This country, in consequence of the exertions of 
Frederick the Great, is now richly furnished with scholastic 
establishments. Prior to 1765, Silesia, like the rest of Europe, 
was but wretchedly provided either with schools or with teachers. 
In the small towns and villages, the schoolmasters were so poor- 
ly paid, that they could not subsist without practising some other 
trade besides their occupation as instructors; and they usually 
united the character of the yilhige fiddler with that of the village 

3 * 



30 EDUCATION IN SILESIA. 

schoolmaster. Frederick issued an ordinance, that a school 
should be kept in every village, and that a competent subsistence 
should be provided for the schoolmaster by the joint contribution 
of the lord of the village and the tenants. Felbiger, an Augustine 
monk, belonging to a convent at Sagan, travelled to different 
countries to obtain an acquaintance with the best modes of teach- 
ing. After spending some years at Berlin, to obtain a perfect 
knowledge of the best method of instruction in the schools of that 
city, he returned to Sagan, and made the convent to which he 
belonged a seminary for candidates as schoolmasters. Pattern 
schools were established at Breslaw, Glatz, and other places, on 
the principles he had adopted, and all candidates for the office of 
teachers, were obliged to attend these seminaries, and to practise 
the method in which they were there instructed. The clergy, no 
less than the teachers, were required to go through this process, 
because the superintendence of the teachers was to be committed 
to them. After these preparatory matters had been carried into 
effect, an ordinance was published in the year 1765, prescribing 
the mode of teaching, and the manner in which the clergy should 
superintend the system. The teachers were directed to give plain 
instruction, and upon subjects applicable to the ordinary concerns 
of life ; not merely to load the memory of their scholars with 
words, but to make things intelligible to their understanding, to 
habituate them to the use of their own reason, by explaining 
every object of their lesson, so that the children themselves may 
be able to explain it, upon examination. The school tax must be 
paid by the lord and tenants, without distinction of religions. 
The boys must all be sent to school from their sixth to their 
thirteenth year, whether the parents are able to pay the school tax 
or not. For the poor the school money must be raised by collec- 
tions. Every parent or guardian who neglects to send his child 
or pupil to school, without sufficient cause, is obliged to pay a 
double tax, for which the guardians shall have no allowance. 
Every curate must examine, weekly, the children of the school 
of his parish. A general examination must be held annually, by 
the deans of the districts, of the schools within their respective 
precincts; and a report of the condition of the schools, the talents 
and attention of the schoolmasters, the state of the buildings, and 
the attendance of the children, made to the office of the vicar- 
general, who is bound to transmit all these reports to the royal 
domain offices, from which orders are issued to supply the de- 
ficiencies of the schools, and to correct any abuses that may be 
found to prevail. If one school suffice for more than one village, 
neither of them must be more than half a German mile, or two 



EDUCATION IN WIRTEMBERG. 31 

and one-fourth British miles, distant from it in the flat country, 
nor more than half that distance in the mountainous parts. 

This system had at first many difficulties to struggle with, from 
the indolence of the Catholic clergy, and their consequent aver- 
sion to the new and troublesome duty imposed upon them. Their 
zeal was alarmed at the danger arising from this diffusion of light 
to the stability of their church. They considered the spirit of 
innovation, and the spirit of inquiry, as equally their natural 
enemies ; and the system still finds a certain degree of resistance 
from the penurious economy, and the stubborn love of darkness, 
which still prevail in some parts of this province. But in so far 
as it has been acted upon, its operation has proved a blessing to 
multitudes. As a proof of its extensive effects, the number of 
schools, in 1752, amounted only to 1552 ; but in 1798, their 
number was more than 3500 ; and many other facts, equally 
clear, attest the progressive increase of knowledge, and a desire 
for improvement. Before the seven years' war, there had scarcely 
ever been more than one periodical journal or gazette published 
in Silesia at one time; but in 1801, there were no less than seven- 
teen newspapers and magazines, which appeared by the day, the 
week, the month, or the quarter ; many of them upon subjects 
generally useful, and containing valuable information and instruc- 
tion for the people. At the former period, there were but three 
booksellers, and all these at Breslaw; but in 1801, there were 
six in that capital, and seven dispersed in the other cities. The 
number of printing presses, and of bookbinders, had increased in 
a similar proportion. Agriculture and manufactures, too, have 
been vastly improved and extended ; so that Silesia is, at this mo- 
ment, one of the most flourishing districts of the Continent. The 
habits of the people have been signally improved ; and they have 
become among the most intelligent, orderly, and industrious, in 
Europe.* 

Wirtemberg, Baden, Bavoria, Sfc» — In Wirtemberg, during 
the last thirty years, the system of education has been very 
greatly extended and improved. A public school is established 
in every parish, and, in some instances, in every hamlet. The 
master receives, as in Scotland, a fixed salary from the parish, 
exclusive of a small fee from the pupils, varying according to 
their age, and the subjects in which they are instructed. The fees 
are fixed by government, and are everywhere the same. Exclu- 
sive of the salaries and fees, the masters are furnished with a 

* See President Adams' Letters on Silesia, Quarterly Journal of Ed' 
ucatioii, and Glasgo-w Geography, vol. iii. 



32 EDUCATION IN BAVARIA. 

house, a garden, and, in most instances, a few acres of ground, 
corresponding to the glebes of the Scottish clergy. The law 
requires thatthe children should be instructed in reading, writing, 
and arithmetic; and it is specially enacted, that they shall be 
instructed in the principles of German grammar and composi- 
tion. The books used in the schools of Wirtemberg and Baden, 
are very superior to those used in similar establishments in this 
country. They consist of geographical, biographical, and histori- 
cal works, and elementary treatises on moral science, natural 
history, and the principles and practice of the most important and 
useful arts. In all the large schools, the boys and girls are kept 
separate. The girls, in addition to reading, writing, and arith- 
metic, arc taught all sorts of needlework, the knitting of stock- 
inss, the making of clothes, &c. : receiving- at the same time 
lessons in the art of cookery, the management of children, and 
other departments of domestic employment. The supervision of 
the schools is intrusted, in every parish or commune^ to a com- 
mittee, consisting of a few of the principal inhabitants ; the clergy 
of the parish, whether Protestants or Catholics, being always ex 
officio members of the committee. This body is intrusted with 
the duty of inspecting the school, and is bound to see that the 
master performs his duty, and that the children attend. No par- 
ticular system of religion is allowed to be taught in any of the 
schools of Wirtemberg, and most of the other Germanic States. 
The tuition of this important branch is left entirely to the clergy 
and the parents of the children, so that the sons and daughters 
of Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Quakers, &c. frequent the 
schools, and live in the utmost harmony. 

The greatest desire prevails among the lower classes that their 
children should enjoy the advantages of the excellent education 
provided for them ; but the government, not trusting entirely to 
this feeling, has enacted regulations, by which every individual 
is compelled to send his children to school^ from the age of six 
to fourteen years. The public functionaries transmit regularly 
to government, once every six months, a list of the children in 
their respective districts, who have attained their sixth year ; and 
they are bound to sec that they are sent to school. In the event 
of the parents being unable to pay the school fees, a statement to 
that effect is prepared by the parochial authorities, and the fees 
are paid by the public. 

In Bavaria, the beneficial consequences resulting from the 
establishment of a system of national education, have been more 
apparent than in any other European country. Half a century 
ago, the ]>avarians were the most ignorant, debauched, and slo- 



EDUCATION IN BAVARIA. 83 

venly people, between the Gulf of Genoa and the Baltic ; but, 
during the last thirty years, no people has ever made a more 
rapid advancement than they have done, in the career of know- 
ledge and of civilization. The late and present kings of Bavaria, 
have not only swept away myriads of abuses, and established a 
representative system of government, but they have laid the only 
sure foundations of permanent and real improvement, in the 
organization of an admirable system of national education. A 
school has been established in every parish, to which every one 
is obliged to send his children, from the age of six to fourteen ; 
Lyceums, Colleges, and Universities have also been instituted, for 
the use of those who are desirous of prosecuting their studies ; 
and every facility is afforded for the acquisition of the best in- 
struction, at the lowest price. The following is a summary view 
of the principal seminaries in this country : — Three universities, 
seven lyceums, eighteen gymnasia, twenty-one colleges, thirty- 
five preparatory schools, sixteen houses of education, seven for 
higher branches, two boarding-schools for girls, seven normal 
schools, one school for foreigners, two schools of law, two veteri- 
nary schools, two schools of midwifery, and two royal schools. 
The public, or national schools, amount to 5394 ; the inspectors 
to 286 ; the teachers to 7114; and the pupils of all classes, to 
about 498,000 ; — and, since the population of Bavaria is about 
four millions, it follows, that not less than one-eighth of the 
entire population is at school, which is a higher proportion than 
what attends the schools in Scotland. 

Mr. Loudon, the talented editor of the " Gardener's Magazine," 
who travelled over most parts of Wirtemberg, Bavaria, and Ba- 
den, in 1828, bears the most unqualified testimony to the excel- 
lence and efficiency of the system of public instruction adopted 
in these countries, and the beneficial effects which have resulted 
from its operation. " From what I have seen," says he, " of 
Wirtemberg, I am inclined to regard it as one of the most civi- 
lized countries in Europe. I am convinced that the great 6bject 
of government is more perfectly attained here, than even in Great 
Britain ; because, with an almost equal degree of individual liber- 
ty, there are incomparably fewer crimes, as well as far less pover- 
ty and misery. Every individual in Wirtemberg reads and thinks ; 
and to satisfy one's self that this is the case, he has only to enter 
into conversation with the first peasant he meets ; to observe the 
number and style of the journals that are everywhere circulated, 
and the multitude of libraries in the towns and villages. I did not 
meet with a single beggar in Wirtemberg, and with only one or 
two in Bavaria and Baden. The dress of the inhabitants of Wir- 



34 EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

temberg, as well as those of a great part of Bavaria and Baden, 
appeared to me to indicate a greater degree of comfort, than I 
had ever observed in any other country, with the exception, per- 
haps, of Sweden, and the Lowlands of Scotland." 

The above sketches were written two or three years ago. 
Since that time, M. Victor Cousin's " Report of the State of Pub- 
lie Instruction," has been published, and translated into English 
by Mrs. Austin. This report, which fills nearly 340 pages, con- 
tains a very full, but rather dry detail, of the whole machinery 
of education in Prussia. From this document it appears, that, in 
1831, there were 22,612 schools, and 27,749 schoolmasters and 
mistresses — that the total number of children under fourteen 
years of age was 4,767,072 ; the number between seven and 
fourteen years, 2,043,030, out of which, the number of children 
attending school was 2,021,421, or nearly a sixth part of the 
whole population, which is estimated at about twelve and a half 
millions. It does not appear, from this report, that infant schools 
are established in Prussia, or any institutions for the instruction 
of young persons from the age of fourteen to twenty, or upwards ; 
nor can we learn, from any thing stated in it, that an intellectval 
principle is uniformly acted upon in the details of education. The 
system presents too much of a military spirit and character, 
throughout all its departments, corresponding to the nature of a 
despotic government ; and it would require a very considerable 
modification, before it could, with propriety, be adopted in a re- 
public or a limited monarchy. Many deficiencies in the system 
likewise require to be su])plied. Yet, notwithstanding all its de- 
fects, it has already produced a benign influence on the know- 
ledge and moral conduct of the inhabitants of that country ; and, 
in a short time, if Britain does not immediately bestir herself in 
the cause of education, the Prussian population will be among 
the most enlightened inhabitants of Europe. 

France. — Notwithstanding the numerous scientific characters 
whi6h have appeared in this country, and the discoveries and im- 
provements they have made in the physical and mathematical 
sciences — the provision for public instruction, particularly in the 
southern departments, is very defective. The Revolution of 1789 
annihilated almost every existing institution, and those for public 
instruction among the rest. For a period'^of nearly five years, 
a whole nation of thirty millions of people remained without any 
regular education. It was, indeed, enacted by a law of the 13th 
September, 1791, "That a system of public instruction should 
be organized; that the public schools should be open to every 
one ; and that no fees should be charged for the elementary 



EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 35 

branches. But, amidst the commotions and demoralizing scenes 
of that period, this law, like many others, was never carried into 
offect ; and, at this moment, France, with the exception of Spain 
and Portugal, is worse provided with the means of elementary 
instruction, than any other countries in Europe. In the '■'■Bulletin 
des Sciences Geographiques,^^ vol. xiv. for 1928, it is stated, 
that " in France, the number of children of an age to frequent 
primary schools is nearly 6,000,000. Of this number scarcely 
a million and a half receive instruction." Thus, without advert- 
ing to the circumstance of ten millions of adults who can neither 
read nor write, according to a recent calculation — there are four 
millions and a half of young Frenchmen, who do not receive 
even the first rudiments of education. The children at school, 
in the thirty-.two departments of the north, are reckoned at 
740,846 ; and in the fifty-four departments of the south, only 
375,931, which is little more than one-thirtieth of the popula- 
tion. In Paris there are to be distinguished two populations, — 
the population already enlightened, which comprehends, at most, 
about 100,000 souls; and the population which still remains to 
be enlightened, which amounts to nearly 800,000. Societies 
and individuals at Paris and other populous towns, exerted them- 
selves to supply so great a want ; but their efforts being openly 
opposed by the clergy, and secretly by the late government, were 
not so successful as they might otherwise have been. Schools, 
upon the Lancasterian plan, were introduced by the government 
at Paris, and other large towns ; but the benefits of the system 
were extended only to professed Catholics ; — none but Catholic 
teachers were employed, and the Protestants were left to educate 
their children the best way they could. In consequence of this 
deficiency of instruction, ignorance and superstition, irreligion 
and immorality, prevail over a large portion of the kingdom, even 
amidst the light of literature and science with which they are 
surrounded ; and a considerable period must elapse before the 
mental darkness can be dispelled, and the moral mischief it has 
produced be completely eradicated. It is to be hoped, now that 
the influence of the Catholic priests has been diminished, and 
liberal measures of policy introduced, that a more extensive sys- 
tem of elementary instruction will be established ; and we are 
happy to understand that the attention of the Government of 
Louis Philip has been directed to this object, and that measures 
have been brought forward in order to its accomplishment. In 
the year 1831, M. V. Cousin was sent as a deputation to Prussia 
from the government of France to acquire a knowledge of the 
details and regulations connected with the Prussian system of 



36 EDUCATION IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

education. Since his return, numerous schools have been estab- 
lished on the principles of the Prussian system, and there is now 
a prospect, that, in the course of a few years, an efficient system 
of education will be established in that country. — According to 
the latest statistical accounts, the number of children who are 
learning to read, now amounts to 2,000,000 : the number of pri- 
mary elementary schools is 35,007 ; of superior primary schools, 
370 ; of private schools, 9092 : total, 44,269. The number of 
boys attending these schools is, 1,175,248; and of girls, 731,773. 
The total expense of primary instruction is 10,162,706 francs, 
or about £423,446. Of this expense there is paid by the Com- 
munes, 7,693,793 fr. ; by the Departments, 2,063,072 fr. ; and 
by the State, 405,841 fr. ; or about £16,910 — a very paltry sum 
when compared with the magnitude and importance of the object. 
Spain. — " In this country there are few establishments for the 
diffusion of the first rudiments of knowledge. The lower classes 
seldom learn to read or write ; those above them are as seldom 
instructed in any thing but those two accomplishments, and the 
elements of arithmetic. Such as are intended for the learned 
professions attend a Latin school for three or four years ; and 
since the expulsion of the Jesuits, these schools are not numer- 
ous. Some private establishments, for the instruction of the boys 
in Latin, were rising at the time of the French invasion, and a 
desire of improvement in the method of teaching was showing 
itself among the teachers."* When we consider that the educa- 
tion of youth in this country is committed chiefly to monks, we 
may rest satisfied, that, in general, its plan and objects are very 
limited and defective. Nor is the system much improved, when 
the student proceeds to the university. He is there taught little 
else but the logic and natural philosophy of Aristotle, and the 
theology of Thomas Aquinas. If a Spaniard, therefore, attain 
to any thing like true knowledge, he must either leave his coun- 
try in the search, or teach himself in the best way his fancy may 
devise. — The same remarks, with a slight modification, will ap- 
ply to the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal^ where Papal 
superstition and tyranny exist in all their fulness and rigour. As 
the numerous swarms of priests, monks and friars, that infest 
this country, are almost universally ignorant, and not unfre- 
quently vicious, — as they are bigoted in the extreme to the es^ 
tablished religion and its childish ceremonials, — and as the gene- 
ral diffusion of knowledge would strike at the foundation of their 
ecclesiastical system, — it cannot be supposed that they will show 

* Quarterly Journal of Education, vol. i. 



EDUCATION IN RUSSIA AND SWITZERLAND 37 

much zeal either in making their scholars liberal and intelligent, 
or in enlarging and improving the general system of instruction. 
Several generations must elapse, and numerous and important 
changes be effected, before we can expect that the great body of 
the Spaniards and Portuguese can become enlightened and mo- 
ralized. 

Russia. — It is only of late years that the attention of the 
Russian government has been directed to the promotion of educa- 
tion throughout that extensive empire ; and several ages will be 
requisite, before its half-civilized inhabitants be raised from the 
state of mental debasement in which they have been so long im- 
mersed. During the reign of the late emperor Alexander, Lan- 
casterian schools and other seminaries were established in differ- 
ent parts of European Russia, and Bible societies, for distributing 
the Scriptures among the lower orders, were patronized by the 
Emperor, Prince Gallitzin, the archbishops, and other distin- 
guished characters. It appears that in the beginning of 1830, 
the emperor Nicholas gave his sanction to certain regulations, 
providing for the establishment of primary schools in the several 
villages appertaining to the crown. The object of these semina- 
ries IS to diffuse useful knowledge among the peasantry, and to 
furnish the villages with individuals who may act as writers. 
Gratuitous instruction is to be afforded in these schools to youths 
of not less than eight years of age, in the catechism, reading 
books and written documents, writing, and the first four opera- 
tions of arithmetic. The lessons are to open after their return 
from labour, and to continue until it be resumed ; with the ex- 
ception of Sundays and festivals, they are to occupy four hours 
a-day. Permission is, however, given to the teacher to assemble 
his pupils for the purpose of repeating their lessons, even whilst 
they are working in the fields : but this cannot take place with- 
out the consent of the villagers. The expenses of these schools 
are to be defrayed out of the territorial income of the villages, 
and the first essays are intended to be made in the governments 
of St. Petersburg and Pscov. 

Switzerland. — This country, remarkable for the sublimity of 
■ its mountain scenery, the fertility of its vales, and the beauty of 
its expansive lakes, — is no less remarkable for the means of edu- 
cation it possesses, and the consequent intelligence and moral 
order of its inhabitants. In this respect, it is scarcely inferior to 
the best educated countries in Europe. The proportion of the in- 
habitants undergoing the process of instruction is greater than 
that of either France, England or Scotland. In the Pays de 
Vaud, this proportion amounts to one-eighth of the population, 

4 



38 DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. 

which is more than the average of the other countries of Europe, 
where systems of instruction have been established ; so that the 
inhabitants of this district of Switzerland, have generally been 
considered by travellers as the most intelligent and the best edu- 
cated among the European nations. 

The celebrated school of Pestalozzi at Yverdun, in the Pays 
de Vaud, has been visited and celebrated by every traveller. 
This was among the first seminaries in which the intellectual 
system was introduced, in which the rationale of every subject 
taught is explained and illustrated, and the intellectual faculties 
stimulated and brought into exercise. It embraces also the plan 
of mutual instruction, as exemplified in the schools of Bell and 
Lancaster. The establishment of the School of Industry of M. 
Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in the Canton of Berne, has also been de- 
servedly celebrated. The object of this seminary is to combine 
scholastic education with industrious habits, and a knowledge of 
the best manner of performing mechanical and agricultural opera- 
tions. Although, at Hofwyl, the principles and practice of Ag7'i- 
culture are the chief objects of attention, yet the general princi- 
ples of the institution and the mode of instruction might, in 
towns, be successfully applied to mechanical operations and 
manufacturing processes of every description. It has given a 
great impulse to education throughout the country, and has pro- 
duced some very eminent scholars. Not only the lower classes, 
but pupils of the highest rank come to this seminary, from Ger- 
many, France, England, and other parts of Europe. In most 
of the cantons, education is a matter of state, persons of the 
greatest respectability are engaged in the business of instruction, 
and the arrangements of the system of tuition are under the im- 
mediate direction and protection of the government. 



CHAPTER II. 

Strictures on the mode in which Education has generally been 

conducted. 

There are few subjects which have so frequently engaged the 
attention of the literary public as the instruction of the young ; 
and yet there is no subject about which so many vague and er- 
roneous notions generally prevail. No term in our language has 
been more abused and misapplied than that of edvcation. By the 
great majority of our countrymen it is considered as consisting 
merely in the acquisition of pronunciation, spelling, and gram- 



DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. 39 

mar — of writing, casting accounts, and the knowledge of lan- 
guages ; and these acquisitions are considered of value chiefly as 
they prepare the individual for engaging in certain secular em- 
ployments, and are instrumental in procuring his subsistence. By 
others it has been confined to the communication of the elements 
of thought, and the improvement of the intellect ; and, by a com- 
paratively small number, it has been regarded chiefly as the for- 
mation of character, and the cultivation of moral habits. But, to 
neither of these objects is education to be exclusively confined. 
It consists of a comprehensive and harmonious combination of 
them all, including every mean and every mode of improvement 
by which intelligent beings may be trained to knowledge and 
virtue — qualified for acting an honourable and respectable part on 
the theatre of this world, and prepared for that immortal existence 
to which they are destined. 

It is deeply to be regretted, that, up to the present hour, with a 
very few exceptions — in an age deemed liberal and enlightened — 
the system on which education has generally been conducted is 
repugnant to the dictates of reason, inefficient for enlightening and 
meliorating the human mind, and is little short of an insult offer- 
ed to the understandings of the young. While almost every initia- 
tory book has for its motto, and every teacher can readily repeat 
the following lines of Thomson, — 

" Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 
To teach the young idea how to shoot, 
And pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind," 

the great objects which education ought to promote have been 
miserably neglected. A farrago of words has been substituted in 
the place of things ; the elements of language have been pre- 
ferred to the elements of thought; the key of knowledge has 
been exhibited instead o£ knowledge itself; and the youthful mind, 
at the termination of the common process of instruction, is almost 
as destitute of ideas as at its commencement. At that period of 
life when the minds of the young are beginning to expand — when 
they ardently thirst after novelty and variety — when they are 
alive to the beauties and sublimities of nature, and listen with de- 
light to the descriptions of other countries, and the tales of other 
times — instead of being gratified with the exhibition of all that is 
interesting in the scenes of creation and the history of man — they 
are set down in a corner to plod over unknown characters and 
strange sounds — no pleasing objects are exhibited to inspire them 
with delight — their memories are burdened, and even tortured, 
while their understandings are neglected j and, after many pain- 



40 DEFECTS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 

ful efforts, intermingled with cries and tears, while the detested 
lash is hanging over their heads, they are enabled to repeat, like 
a number of puppets, their medley of grammar rules, their 
psalms, their hymns, their catechisms, and their speeches from 
the English and Roman classics, pouring out their words with a 
velocity like water bursting from a spout, without a single correct 
idea connected with their exercises, " understanding neither 
what they say, nor whereof they affirm." — Hence it has too fre- 
quently happened, that the school-room has been viewed as a 
prison, their teachers as a species of tyrants, and the scholastic 
exercises in which they are engaged, as repugnant to their natural 
vivacity, and subversive of their youthful pleasures. Hence they 
have frequently been driven to the village school, like sheep to the 
slaughter, and like criminals to a jail, or carried on the shoulders 
of their companions, amidst cries, and lamentations, and fore- 
bodings of punishment. 

In seminaries of a higher order than those to which I now 
allude, five or six years are generally spent in learning the de- 
clension of nouns, the conjugation of verbs, and the rules of syn- 
tax, and in acquiring a smattering of the Roman classics ; while, 
at the close of this tedious, and to the pupil, revolting process, he 
retires from the seminary to the shop, the counting-house, or the 
university, nearly as ignorant of the common phenomena of nature, 
of the sublime discoveries of modern times, of the principles of 
the arts and sciences, and the laws of moral action, as if he had 
been born in Patagonia, or in the centre of New Holland. If he 
has acquired any thing at all, which may be denominated know- 
ledge, it consists chiefly in a jumble of notions about the squab- 
bles of heathen gods and goddesses, detached fragments of Roman 
history, the Metamorphoses of Ovid, the fictions of Pagan my- 
thology, and the revengeful encounters of destroying armies and 
ambitious despots. While his mind is familiar with the absurdi- 
ties and impieties of ancient superstition and idolatry, he not un- 
frequently quits the scene of instruction as ignorant of the char- 
acter and attributes of the true God, of the doctrines of the 
Christian religion, and of the tempers which it inculcates, as if 
he had been tutored in a Pagan land. 

Even in those seminaries which are devoted to the religions 
instruction of the young, the same absurd and inefficient system 
to which I have alluded is too frequently acted upon. Instead of 
exhibiting to the understandings of the young the character and 
perfections of the Deity, and the truths of Christianity, by familiar 
^nd popular illustrations deduced from the economy of nature, 
and the facts of revelation, a great proportion of their Sabbath- 



DEFECTS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 41 

school exercises consists in repeating, with a disgusting ffippancy 
and vociferation, their catechisms, psalms, paraphrases, hymns, 
and Scripture passages, assigned them as tasks, and in listening 
to the crude expositions of certain abstract theological dogmas, to 
which they can attach no precise or well-defined notions, and 
which do not enter into the essence of the Christian system. In 
certain schools of this description, I have witnessed the attention 
of the children almost exclusively directed to the mere repetition 
of the Shorter Catechism, and other compends of divinity, and 
that, too, in a most inaccurate, irreverent, and vociferous manner, 
without a single attempt being made to convey any idea to the 
understanding of the nature of the truths repeated — while the 
catechumens seemed to be much gratified and relieved in having 
got their memories disburdened of the ungracious tasks imposed 
upon them. In other schools, where the teachers had acquired 
a smattering of systematic theology — after the memorial tasks 
were dispatched — I have listened to a series of crude dissertations 
addressed to the young respecting the covenant of works and of 
grace, predestination, absolute and conditional decrees, faith, the 
Trinity, and similar topics, together with long-winded exhorta- 
tions, occasionally intermingled with boisterous and unhallowed 
threats and denunciations, because the young did not yield a pro- 
found attention to such abstract speculations. Yet all this goes 
by the name of religious instruction ; and, when it is found to 
produce little influence on the moral conduct of the young, the 
efl"ect is attributed solely to the corruption of human nature, and 
to the withholding of the influences of Divine grace, — a sentiment 
which goes far to attribute to the " Only Wise God" those effects 
which are produced by the folly and the injudicious schemes of 
men. — As it is painful to exercise the memory to any extent on 
words unconnected with ideas, so it frequently happens, that a 
disrelish for religion and its services is induced, in consequence 
of the labour and drudgery with which they are thus associated. 
In these seminaries, too, the duties of Christian morality are too 
frequently thrown into the shade. Christianity is not a mere 
theory, but a practical system ; for all its historical details, its 
doctrines and precepts, its promises and threatenings, have an 
ultimate reference to the regulation of the temper and affections, 
the direction of the conduct, and to the general renovation of the 
moral powers of man, in order to his preparation for a higher 
state of moral and intellectual excellence. And, therefore, it 
ought to be one of the grand objects of religious instruction to 
cultivate the moral powers, to direct the temper and affections, 

and to show, by familiar illustrations taken from the scenes of 

4* 



42 DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. 

active life, how the principles of Christianity ought to operate in 
all the diversified circumstances and relations of society. — But, 
leaving this topic, in the mean time, let us attend a little more 
particularly to the range of instruction in our common initiatory 
schools. 

After a knowledge of the characters of the alphabet and of the 
principal elementary sounds is acquired, the scholar is led through 
a series of dry and uninteresting lessons and spelling exercises, 
in which his memory and his faculty of pronunciation are solely 
exercised. The New Testament is next put into his hand, and, 
after reading a portion of it with great difficulty and awkwardness, 
and before he is capable of reading one sentence with ease and 
accuracy, he is introduced to such books as "Barrie's Collection," 
and "Tyro's Guide," and "Scott's Beauties of Eminent Writers," 
in which there is scarcely one selection interesting to a youthful 
mind, or level to its comprehension. But this circumstance seems 
to be considered by many as a matter of no importance ; for it is 
seldom or never that an attempt is made to convey to the minds 
of youth the ideas contained in the lessons they read and commit 
to memory. During these reading exercises, the Shorter Cate- 
chism is put into their hands, in order that its vocables may be 
committed to memory ; and that, too, at so early a period, that 
they find the greatest difficulty in mastering the pronunciation of 
the long and technical terms with which it abounds. Through 
this ungracious task they struggle, with the greatest reluctance, 
and generally, too, without annexing a single idea to any of the 
answers they repeat. They are soon after, perhaps before they 
are seven years of age, introduced to the study of English gram- 
mar ; and, after feeling much apathy and not a little disgust at 
this abstract science, and experiencing many days and hours of 
ungrateful labour, they are able to repeat a few of its rules, defi- 
nitions, and declensions. Like so many parrots, they can tell us 
by rote, what is a verb, an adverb, or a preposition, or that " con- 
junctions which imply contingency require the subjunctive mood," 
without understanding what they say, or annexing a clear idea 
to any of the rules or definitions they repeat. By turning over 
Scott's or Fulton's Dictionary, they learn that virtue is a noun, 
because n is annexed to it — that, to write is a verh^ because v is 
annexed to it — and that from is a preposition, because pre is 
annexed to it ; but, beyond such reasons they seldom attempt to 
aspire ; and after two or three years' training in such exercises, 
they know little more of the subject, or of the application of its 
rules to composition, than when they first commenced. The 
principal acquisition made, is a facility in finding out words in a 



DEFECTS IN MORAL EDUCATION. 43 

dictionary, without any attention being paid to their meaning — 
an object which may easily be accomplished in a few days. — 
The useful art oi' writing is next attempted to be taught ; and, in 
most instances, a far greater degree of importance is attached to 
the acquirement of an " elegant text," or a " fine running hand," 
than to the cultivation of the moral and intellectual powers, and 
the acquisition of substantial knowledge. — Arithmetic follows in 
the rear, and the scholar, after hurrying through its four funda- 
mental rules, without any sensible illustrations of the different 
operations, is exercised in calculations respecting Tare and Tret, 
Interest and Annuities, the Square and Cube Root, Exchange, 
Discount and Equation of Payments, before he has the leavSt 
knowledge of the nature of these transactions; and, consequently, 
like one walking in the dark, is unable to perceive the drift and 
tendency of most of his operations, or the foundation of the rules 
by which he calculates ; and hence it happens that, when he 
actually engages in the business of real life, he has almost the 
whole of his arithmetical processes to study over again, and to 
ye-investigate the foundations, objects, and principles, of his ope- 
rations, in their applications to the transactions in which he is 
engaged. 

In fine, during the whole of the process now described, the 
moral powers of the young are in a great measure overlooked, 
and the business of moral tuition shamefully neglected. To im- 
prove their tempers and aflfections, and to bend them into that 
direction which will tend to promote their own happiness and that 
of others, is considered as a matter of inferior moment, in which 
teachers are very little, if at all, interested. It forms, at least, no 
prominent object, in our schools, to meliorate the tempers of the 
young, to counteract the principles of malice, envy, and revenge 
— to inspire them with kindness and benevolence — and to train 
them to moral excellence. On. the contrary, the mode in which 
they are treated has frequently a tendency to produce ohstinacy, 
dissimulation, superstition, pride, hatred, and disaffection. The 
spirit of unchristian emulation, contention, and revenge, is indi- 
rectly fostered by the books they read, the discipline by which 
they are trained, the amusements in which they indulge, the false 
maxims and Pagan sentiments which are interwoven through the 
whole course of their education, and by the admiration which is 
attempted to be excited in their breasts for- barbarous heroes and 
the butchers of mankind. The active powers of the young being 
thus allowed to take the natural bent of their depraved inclinations, 
selfishness, pride, malice, and other malignant passions, are al- 
lowed to spring up and flourish, without feeling the force of those 



44 DEFICIENCY OF INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION. 

salutary checks which might impede their progress, or destroy 
them in the bud ; and thus perverse habits and dispositions are 
induced, which " grow with their growth, and strengthen with 
their strength," till at length they display themselves with diabo- 
lical energy in the scenes of domestic life, and on the theatre of 
the political world, amidst the contentions of communities and 
" the tumults of the people." 

Such is the amount of thfe education which the great mass of 
our population receive prior to their entrance on the scene of active 
life. To affirm that it is attended by no beneficial effects, would 
be to fly in the face of all observation and experience. It prepares 
the mind, in some measure, for certain avocations in civil society, 
and for the reception of knowledge in after life, should it ever be 
exhibited in a more judicious and intelligent manner ; and, in 
some instances, when combined with judicious domestic instruct 
lion, it will assist and direct the pupil, in the pursuit of knowledge 
and of mental enjoyments. But, considered by itself, as a system 
of culture for rational and immortal beings, in order to the devel- 
opment of their moral and intellectual powers, and as a prepa- 
ration for a higher state of existence, it is miserably deficient, both 
in the means which are employed, in the range of instruction, and 
in the objects which it is calculated to accomplish. — To illustrate 
this position is the object of the following remarks. 

I. In the first place, one glaring defect which runs through the 
whole system of initiatory instruction (except in very rare in- 
stances) is that no attempt is made to convey ideas to the youth- 
ful mind, along ivith the elementary sounds of language and the 
art of pronunciation. Provided children can mouth the words, 
and vociferate with alacrity the different sentences contained in 
their lessons, it appears to be a matter of little importance in the 
eyes either of teachers or of parents, whether or not they appre- 
ciate the meaning of any one portion of the sentiments they read. 
Although the great object of education is " to teach the young 
idea how to shoot," it is almost the only object which is thrown 
into the shade ; and those scholastic exercises which are only the 
means of education, are almost exclusively attended to as if they 
were the end. The young are thus treated as if they were only 
so many puppets, placed on a stage to exhibit a series of mecha- 
nical movements, and as if they were not possessed of the smallest 
portion of intellect, and were entirely destitute of affections and 
passions. Yet, it is undeniable, from fact, that children, at a very 
early age, are capable of receiving a variety of ideas into their 
minds, and of exercising their reasoning powers respecting them. 
Present an engraved landscajie to a boy of four or five years of 



DEFICIENCY OF INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION. 45 

age, especially as exhibited through the Optical Diagonal Ma- 
chine, where he will see every object, in its true perspective as it 
appears in nature — he will at once recognise and describe, in his 
own way, the houses, the streets, the men, the women, the roads 
and carriages, and the land and water of which it is composed, 
and express his opinion respecting them. Present well-executed 
engravings of a horse, a cow, a lion, an elephant, or a monkey, 
and he will soon learn to distinguish the one from the other, and 
will feel delighted with every new exhibition that is made to him 
of the objects of nature or of art. And, therefore, if sensible ob- 
jects, level to his capacity and range of thought, and with which 
he is in some measure acquainted, were uniformly exhibited in 
his first excursions in the path of learning, his progress in know- 
ledge would nearly correspond to his advancement in the art of 
spelling and pronunciation. The absurdity of neglecting the cul- 
tivation of the understanding, in the dawn of life, and during the 
progress of scholastic instruction, however common it may be, is 
so obvious and glaring, that it scarcely requires a process of rea- 
soning to show its irrationality, if we admit that the acquisition 
of knowledge ought to be one of the great ends of education. 
What important purpose can be gained by a number of boys and 
girls spending a series of years, in pronouncing, like so many 
parrots, a number of articulate sounds, to which they annex no 
corresponding ideas or impressions, and which cost them so much 
pain and anxiety to acquire? What is the use of the art of read- 
ing, if it be not made the medium by which knowledge and moral 
improvement may be communicated 1 And, if we neglect to teach 
youth to apply this mean to its proper end, while they are under 
regular tuition, how can we reasonably expect, that they will af- 
terwards apply it, of their own accord, when a sufficient stimulus 
is wanting? By neglecting to connect the acquisition of useful 
information with the business of elementary instruction, we place 
the young nearly in the same predicament as we ourselves should 
be placed, were we obliged, from day to day, to read and repeat 
long passages from the writings of Confucius, the Alcoran of 
Mahomet, or the Shasters of Bramah, in the Chinese, the Turkish 
and the Hindoo languages, while we understood not the meaning 
of a single term. And how painful and disgusting should we feel 
such a revolting exercise ! — The consequence of this absurd prac- 
tice is, that, instead of exciting desires for further acquisitions in 
learning, — in a majority of instances, we produce a disgust to 
every species of mental exertion and improvement ; instruction 
becomes unpleasant and irksome, both to the teacher and the 
scholar ; the cliild leaves school without having acquired any real 



46 IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

knowledge, and destitute of any relish for it, and seldom after- 
wards makes any use of the instructions he received for the fur- 
ther cultivation of his mind in wisdom and virtue. To this cause, 
perhaps, more than to any other, is to be attributed the deplorable 
ignorance which still pervades the mass of our population, not- 
withstanding the formal process of instruction they undergo, — 
and the little relish they feel for devoting their leisure hours to 
the improvement of their minds, and to those pursuits which are 
congenial to rational and immortal natures. 

II. Another defect which pervades the whole system of scho- 
lastic instruction in our country, and of which the former is a 
native consequence, is, that there is scarcely one of our element- 
ary books adapted to the capacities of youth, an^ calculated to 
excite their attention and affections^ by its interesting and in- 
structive details. 

Not to mention the dry and uninteresting lists and details con- 
tained in most of our spelling-books, and the vague and sombre 
moral instructions they exhibit — let us fix our attention, for a 
moment, on the general train of subjects contained in " Barrie's 
Collection," and " Tyro's Guide," and in " Scott's Beauties of 
Eminent Writers," — the books most commonly used in the paro- 
chial and other schools in this country, — and we shall soon per- 
ceive that they are every thing but calculated for the purpose in- 
tended. These works (which, like some others of the same fry, 
seem to have been constructed by means of the scissors) chiefly 
contain extracts illustrative of the beauties of sentiment and com- 
position : — Speeches on political subjects formerly delivered in 
the Roman, Grecian, and British Senates — characters of Pope, 
Dryden, Milton, or Shakespeare — descriptions of the battles of 
Poictiers, Hastings, Agincourt, and Bannockburn — abstract eulo- 
giums on virtue, oratory, and the art of criticism — prosing disser- 
tations on the cultivation of taste — on happiness, retirement, and 
meditation — Speeches and Epilogues of stage-players, political 
disquisitions, foolish tales, parables and allegories — Falstaff's en- 
comiums on sack — Hamlet's advice to players — Epilogue of Gar- 
rick for the benefit of decayed actors — the Drunken Knight and 
his Brawling Lady appeased — Speeches of Quinctius Capitolinus, 
of Romulus to his citizens, of Hannibal to Scipio, and of Galga- 
cus to his army — East India Company's address on the junction 
of Spain and France — Mr. Walpole and Mr. Pitt's Parliamentary 
debates — Extracts from the Poems of Akenside, Thomson, Milton 
and Young — Speech of Sin to Satan — Speech of Satan in his in. 
fernal palace of Pandemonium — Moloch's speech to Satan — Be- 
lial's speech in reply — Satan's soliloquy — the combat of the Ho- 



IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 47 

ratii and the Curiatii — -Captain Bobadil's method of defeating an 
army — Clarence's dream — Nerval and Glenalvon's revengeful 
encounter — Lord and Lady Randolph, Sir Charles and Lady 
Racket — Sempronius' speech for war — Description of Queen Mab 
— Ossian's address to the Sun — Soliloquy of Dick the apotheca- 
ry's apprentice — Alexander's Feast — Blair's Grave — Young's 
Life, Death, and Immortality — Queen of the Fairies — the Wolf 
and the Crane — the Town Mouse and the Country Mouse — the 
Tailor and the Conjurer — the Old Man and his Ass — with a mul- 
tifarious medley of pieces of a similar description. 

These comprehend a fair specimen of the prominent subjects 
selected, in our common school-books, /or the purpose of training 
the youthful mind in knowledge and virtue. I have no hesitation 
in asserting, that more unsuitable subjects, consistent with com- 
mon decency, could scarcely have been selected, and that they 
are little short of a direct insult offered to the youthful under- 
standing. The compilers of such collections, either suppose, that 
the juvenile mind, at the age of eight or nine years, when such 
selections are put into their hands, has embraced a range of 
thought and contemplation far beyond what it is capable of, in 
ordinary cases, or they wish to insult their imbecile minds, by 
offering them stones instead of bread, or they rake together their 
extracts at random, without considering whether they are at all 
suited to the class of persons to whom they are addressed. For 
there is not one lesson out of twenty which is level to the range 
of thought, and to the capacity of the youthful mind, in its first 
outset in the path of science, even although parents and teachers 
were to attempt an explanation of the passages which are read ; 
as they embody descriptions and allusions respecting objects, 
events, and circumstances, which cannot be duly appreciated 
without a previous course of study ; and they abound with a mul- 
titude of abstract speculations which can never convey well-de- 
fined ideas to the understandings of the young. What ideas can 
a boy of seven or eight years' old form of the Parliamentary de- 
bates of Mr. Pulteney, Mr. Pitt, or Sir Robert Walpole ; of the 
speech of Marcus Valerius on a dispute between the Patricians 
and Plebeians concerning the form of government ; of dissertations 
on the art of Criticism ; of Belial's speech to Moloch ; or even of 
Blair's Grave, or Young's Life, Death, and Immortality ; — or 
what interest can he be supposed to feel in such themes and dis- 
cussions ? I appeal to every one of my readers, if, at the age 
now specified, they ever understood such selections, or felt 
gratified and improved by perusing them. It is an absurdity, at 
once perceptible, that the beauties of sentiment and composition 



48 IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

which are appreciated and relished by persons of refined taste, at 
the age of twenty or thirty, will be equally relished and admired 
by children of eight or ten years of age ; and yet, from an ex- 
amination of our initiatory school-books, it is undeniable, that, on 
a false principle of this kind, almost all our elementary works 
have been constructed. 

But, it is farther to be regretted, that this is not the only fault 
that can be charged upon these productions. They exhibit scenes 
and sentiments which ought not to be familiarized to the minds of 
children, and which are repugnant to the spirit and practice of 
genuine Christianity. In almost every page, both of the prosaic 
artd poetic extracts, the war gong is ever and anon resounding in 
our ears, and " the confused noise of the warrior, with garments 
rolled in blood." The Co?sars, the Alexanders, and the Buona- 
partes, of ancient and modern times, instead of being held up to 
execration as the ravagers and destroyers of mankind, are set 
forth to view as glorious conquerors and illustrious heroes, whose 
characters and exploits demand our admiration and applause. 
And if, at any time, the minds of the young imbihe the senti- 
ments which pervade their lessons, it is generally when they 
breathe a warlilce spirit, and exhibit those desolations and rava- 
ges which ambition and revenge have produced in the world, — and 
when they themselves are trained to spont at an examination, and, 
arrayed in warlike habiliments, with guns, or spears, or darts, to 
ape the revengeful exploits of a Nerval and a Glenalvon. I have 
beheld the young, when engaged in such exhibitions, eulogized 
and applauded by their examinators, and surrounding spectators, 
more than on account of all the other scholastic improvements 
they had acquired. To this cause, doubtless, as well as to others, 
is to be attributed the spirit of warfare and contention which still 
reigns on the theatre of the political world, and which has deso- 
lated, and disgraced, and demoralized, every nation under heaven. 
I have known a teacher who has turned over page after page, in 
some of the works now referred to, in search of a passage worthy 
of being committed to memory by his pupils, and who could not 
in conscience fix upon any one, in a long series of extracts, on 
account of its being imbued with this antichristian spirit. In addi- 
tion to this striking characteristic of our school-collections, and in 
perfect accordance with it — it may also be stated, that Pride, Am- 
bition, Revenge, and other Pagan virtues, ai'e sometimes held up 
to view as the characteristics of a noble and heroic mind ; and 
swearing, lying, brawling, and deceit, are frequently exhibited in 
so ludicrous a manner, as almost to win the affections, and to 
excite approbation. 



IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 49 

But, in fine, although the selections to which I allude were 
level to the comprehensions of the young, and untinged with nnti- 
christian sentiments — what is the amount of all the knowledge 
and instruction they contain ? They embrace no perspicuous 
system of interesting and useful information, — scarcely any thing 
that bears on the cultivation of Christian dispositions, — no exhi- 
bitions of the scenes of Nature and Art in which the young may 
afterwards be placed, — little information respecting the works of 
God, the revelations of his word, or the useful inventions of men. 
The beauties which adorn the scenery of nature, the wonders of 
Creating Power, as displayed in the earth, the air, the ocean, and 
the heavens ; the displays of Divine Wisdom and Goodness, 
which everywhere surround us ; the mild and pacific virtues of 
Christianity, which ought equally to adorn the prince and the 
peasant; the avocations and amusements of domestic life; the 
scenery of the country, the city, and the village, or the important 
facts contained in the Sacred history, — are seldom or never 
detailed, with interesting simplicity, in this class of publications. 
And, are a few extracts from old plays and novels, romances and 
fables. Pagan mythology and Parliamentary debates — from the 
speeches of Roman orators and the epilogues of stage-players, to 
be considered as the most agreeable and substantial food for the 
youthful intellect, and as the most judicious process for imbuing 
it with useful knowledge, and preparing it for the employments 
of an immortal existence 1 Are the absurd opinions of Roman 
and Grecian poets and warriors, respecting their gods, their heroes, 
and their religion, and the polluted streams of heathen morality, 
to be substituted in the room of the simple and sublime delinea- 
tions of revelation, the pure principles of the gospel, and the noble 
discoveries of modern science 1 If so, — then let us not boast 
of imparting to our children a rational and a Christian edu- 
cation. 

I have alluded more particularly to the works above mentioned, 
because they are most frequently used in our borough and paro- 
chial schools ; but I know no works of this kind, published in this 
country, with the exception of two or three volumes, to which the 
above strictures will not, in a greater or less degree, apply. I do 
not, however, condemn such l30oks, in so far as they contain 
sentimental extracts, for the use of advanced students of elocution, 
— or considered as miscellanies for the amusement of persons 
advanced in life, (though even in this last point of view they can 
not be held in high estimation,) — my main objection rests on th- 
ground of their being unfitted to interest the minds of the young, 
and to convey to them the outlines of knowledge and virtue, 

5 



50 INJUDICIOUS EXEltCISE OF THE MEMORY. 

unmingled with the rubbish of false maxims and antichristian 
sentiments.* 

III. Another error which runs through our scholastic instruc- 
tion is, that, while the cultivation of the judgment is neglected, 
the memory is injudiciously, and often too severely exercised. 
The efforts of memory, in most cases, especially when exercised 
in the retention of mere sounds and terms, are generally attended 
with painful sensations ; and, when these sensations are long 
continued, they frequently produce a disgust at the objects and 
employments of education. Long passages from Homer, Shake- 
speare, Milton, or Pope, are given out for recitation to the young, 
while they are still incapable of appreciating the meaning of a 
single sentiment in the task prescribed ; and the facility with 
which they can recollect and vociferate a number of jingling 
sounds is considered by many as the best evidence of their pro- 
gress in the paths of instruction. The period has not long gone 

* The above remarks were written in the year 1821, and published in 
the '* Christian Instructor." Since that period several school-books have 
appeared, compiled on more rational and Christian principles than most of 
their predecessors, — particularly, M'Culloch's " Course of Elementary 
Reading in Science and Literature," " The A^ational School Collection," 
*' The American Reader," by Merriam, and several others ; but they are 
chiefly adapted for the higher classes in schools, and for young people who 
have nearly finished their course of instruction in reading, and they have 
been introduced into corhparatively few of our schools, and in many parts 
of the country are altogether unknown. Several useful compilations have 
likewise of late been published in England and America, but they are more 
adapted to the use of families and domestic instruction than to public semi- 
naries. I am acquainted with no book for the Juvenile classes, comprising 
useful information, and compiled in such a manner as to render knowledge 
and morality perspicuous,' fascinating, and interesting to the young, and 
calculated to give full scope to their rational and active powers. About a 
year after the publication of these remarks in the " Christian Instructor," 
its Editor, the late Rev. Dr. A. Thomson, compiled a school collection, and 
sent me a copy of it, for my inspection. My opinion of this compilation 
having been requested, at the next personal interview I had with the Doc- 
tor, I told him, that I considered the book free of any antichristian senti- 
ments, calculated to make a good impression on the minds of the young, 
and that it contained a considerable number of instructive and entertaining 
selections ; but that a number of the selections, however good in them- 
selves, were too didactic and sombre to engage the attention of the juvenile 
mind. The Doctor admitted the justice of the last remark, and said, that, 
in another edition, he intended to throw out the pieces alluded to, and sub- 
stitute, in their place, more entertauiing selections. Dr. Thomson's collec- 
tion is, on the whole, a good one ; but, like the others mentioned above, is 
chiefly adapted to the higher classes. The plan of all the school collections 
hitherto published is susceptible of much improvement ; and I shall after- 
wards take an opportutiity of adverting to this subject in a subsequent part 
of this volume. 



IXJUOICIOTJS EXEBCISE OF THE ME3I0KY. 51 

by (if it have yet passed) when the repetition of the first chapter 
of the first book of Chronicles, of the tenth chapter of Nehemiah, 
of the hundred-and-nineteenth Psalm, or of half a dozen chapters 
in the New Testament, by a schoolboy, — with a disgusting voci- 
feration, and a uniform velocity, like water dashing over a preci- 
pice, was regarded, both by parents and teachers, as an evidence 
of extraordinary genius, and as an achievement in education of 
far greater importance than if he had drawn an outline of univer- 
sal history, or sketched the geography of the globe. — Of all the 
exercises of memory to which the young tyro is accustomed, there 
is none more injudicious and more painful to the pupil, than that 
by which he is constrained to get by rote the Shorter Catechism, 
at the early age at which it is generally prescribed. At the age 
of five or six, before he is capable of understanding a single senti- 
ment of the system of Divinity, and even before he can read with 
ease any one of its questions and answers — he is set to the un- 
gracious task of committing its vocables to memory, as if he were 
a mere machine, formed solely for mechanical movements and 
the emission of sounds. The reluctance with which this task is 
generally engaged in ; the painful sensations which accompany 
it; the correction which follows its neglect; the ludicrous blunder- 
ing ; and the complete destitution of ideas with which it is general- 
ly attended — all conspire to show the absurdity of the practice. 
I am fully persuaded, that the unpleasant associations connected 
with this task, have, in many instances, produced a lasting dis- 
gust, both at the pursuits of learning, and the instructions of 
religion. Yet, there are ibw school-exercises to which parents in 
general attach a greater degree of importance. To omit the 
teaching of this catechism by rote, even although other and more 
perspicuous instructions were given on divine subjects, would be 
considered as arguing a certain degree of irreligion on the part 
of the teacher ; and even respectable clergymen and others con- 
sider this exercise as a sine qua iron in religious instruction — ^just 
as if the mere terms and definitions of this excellent summary 
were to produce a magical effect on the moral and intellectual 
faculties. The com.mon argument in fiivour, of this practice, 
*' that it is laying in a store of religious vocables for after reflec- 
tion, and that the answers will be perfectly understood in riper 
years," — -when considered in connection with what has been now 
said, is extremely futile and inconclusive. The blundering man- 
ner in which persons advanced in life frequently repeat this 
catechism — mistaking, for example, the answer to " What is 
Justification?" for that which relates to " sanctification," or what 
is forbidden for what is required in any of the commandments, 



52 INJUDICIOUS EXERCISE OF THE MEMORY. 

and without being at all conscious of their error — plainly indi- 
cates, that correct ideas are seldom attached to whatever has been 
learned by mere rote, and that the rational faculty is seldom 
exerted in such exercises. In short, I have little hesitation in 
laying it down as a maxim that will generally hold true, that 
*' whenever the words of a proposition are committed to memory 
without being understood, their meaning will afterwards be seldom 
inquired after or perceived." I am convinced, that a careful 
perusal of this catechism, or any other similar system, accom- 
panied with proper explanations, at the age of fourteen or sixteen, 
will convey more real information than can be acquired by all the 
painful labour and drudgery endured by committing it to memory 
at the usual age at which it is prescribed. 

Let it not, however, be imagined, that I wish to throw the least 
reflection on the Shorter Catechism, as a summary of Christian 
doctrine and duty. On the contrary — without admitting every 
sentiment it contains as perfectly correct, or necessary to be em- 
bodied in such a synopsis of theology — I consider it, on the whole, 
as one of the most comprehensive compends of divinity ever 
published — which, with a very few retrenchments and modifica- 
tions, might form a basis of union to almost all the religious 
bodies in this country. But the very thing in which its chief 
excellence consists, constitutes an argument against its being used 
as a first catechism. It is so comprehensive, that almost every 
word includes an important meaning, and has an allusion to those 
profound views of the Christian system, and to those controverted 
points in divinity, which are chiefly recognised by professed 
divines. It is not by endeavouring to convey general and ab- 
stract views of Christian doctrine, or by cramming the memories 
of young persons with a multiplicity of theological terms and 
doctrinal opinions, that instructions in religion will be successful 
in arresting their attention, and impressing their minds ; but by 
particular explications, and familiar illustrations borrowed from 
sensible objects, of a few of the most prominent truths of the 
Christian system, that impressive and well-defined ideas will be 
communicated to the youthful mind. And perhaps too little care 
is exercised in communicating, in a vivid and impressive manner, 
the fundamental truths of natvral religion, which form the 
groundwork of the different parts of the Christian superstructure. 
I conceive, that it is time enough to commence the regular study 
of the Shorter Catechism, at the age of twelve or thirteen, when 
its answers should be minutely analyzed, and its terms, doctrines, 
and moral injunctions, familiarly explained and elucidated by in- 
structors, who have accurate and enlarged views of the truths it 



EARLY GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES. 63 

conveys; anJ, vvlieii employed in this way, it will fee found a 
useful synopsis of Christian faith and practice. Prior to the 
period to which I now refer, some of Dr. Watts' first catechisms 
might be used ; or, perhaps, it might be possible to construct a 
catechism more simple and interesting, and containing more 
striking illustrations of natural and revealed religion, than any 
that have yet appeared ; or, perhaps, without adopting the form 
of a catechism, we might directly refer to the positive declarations 
of Scripture, in reference to its facts, doctrines, and precepts, 
accompanying the passages we extract with short comments and 
familiar elucidations. The truths contained in such catechisms 
might be learned with ease, and even with pleasure, by the young, 
if they were accompanied with a few hints from the parent or 
teacher, to elucidate the facts and doctrines exhibited to their 
view ; and especially, were they compiled on such a plan, as to 
give occasional exercise to the curiosity and the judgment in 
finding out the proper answers. 

In throwing out such remarks as the above, I am aware that I 
am treading on delicate ground. But far more convincinsr aro-u- 
ments than any I have yet heard must be brought forward, before 
I can see reason to alter the opinion now stated. If it be once 
admitted, that the communication o^ ideas ought to form the great 
object of all instruction — that the young, at an early age, are 
capable of being the recipients of knowledge — and that education 
should be rendered as pleasant and agreeable as the nature of 
the exercise will admit — I will not fear to face any argument 
that may be presented on this subject. I am far from wishing to 
insinuate, that the memory ought not to be exercised in the pro- 
cess of education ; for it is one of the powers or instruments con- 
ferred on us, for the purpose of making intellectual acquisitions; 
but I contend, that its exertions, in the first instance, ought to be 
gentle, easy, and rational, and employed chiefly in relation to 
those objects about which the young are capable of forming some 
distinct and agreeable conceptions, and not merely on sounds and 
terms, and abstract propositions, to which no precise meaning is 
attached. 

IV. In our schools and seminaries, as presently conducted, 
grammar is attempted to be taught at too early an age. Gram- 
mar is an abstract branch of the philosophy of mind ; and, there- 
fore, to enter with intelligence and interest into its spirit, the foun- 
dation of its rules and their application — requires some degree of 
knowledge, observation, and maturity of judgment, not generally 
possessed by juvenile minds ; and, consequently, to attempt to 
teach it to infants, in a systematic form, seems almost as prepos- 

5* 



64 EARLY GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES. 

terous as^it would be to attempt to instruct them in the New- 
tonian philosophy, or in the Hutchinsonian system of metaphy- 
sics. The little urchin of six or seven years of age, may, indeed, 
be taught to repeat the definitions of all the parts of speech, and 
of all the moods and tenses of verbs — the inflections of nouns and 
verbs, and even the whole of the rules of syntax ; but such exer- 
cises are always accompanied with a certain degree of labour and 
disgust, which tend to sour the mind in its progress through such 
scholastic instruction. And after all the mental anxiety and toil 
endured in such mechanical exercises, they acquire not, perhaps, 
a single correct idea on the subject, especially in the abstract and 
superficial manner in which it is taught in our common schools, 
and are unable to appreciate any one useful purpose to which 
such exercises are subservient. To distinguish a novn, or the 
quality of a noun, or the nature of a verb, and to correct a simple 
sentence in which a verb disagrees with its nominative, are exer- 
cises which children may be taught at an early period, by familiar 
examples, and which might be rendered both amusing and 
instructive, without the formality of technical terms, complex 
rules, or abstract systems ; but to proceed much farther than such 
easy exercises, before the intellectual powers are somewhat ma- 
tured, appears to be wasting time and money, and mental anxiety, 
to no purpose. Even the elements, or the more popular parts, 
of natural history, geography, astronomy, and experimental phi- 
losophy, could be taught with much better effect, at such an early 
period, than the abstract study of verbs and adverbs, conjunctions 
and declensions, and metaphysical rules, the foundation of which 
no child can comprehend ; because, in those departments of know- 
ledge, sensible objects and pictorial representations can be pre- 
sented to the view of the juvenile mind as elucidations of the facts 
and principles inculcated. 

That the opinions now stated may not appear altogether sin- 
gular, I shall quote a sentence or two from the writings of the 
learned Mr. Smellie — the well-known translator of " Buffon's 
Natural History." In his work on " The Philosophy of Natural 
History," vol. ii. p. 453, he remarks — " Premature studies are 
uniformly painful, because young minds are incapable of com- 
prehending the principles, and far less the application of them to 
arts or sciences. Grammar, the first science obtruded upon, I 
may say, infantine intellects, is one of the most abstract and 
intricate. To attain even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, 
whatever b'" "he language, (for the general principles are, and 
must be, the same,) presupposes a considerable range of intuitive 
facts, as well as of acquired ideas." Again, speaking of the 



ART OP WRITING. 65 

absurdity of "journeymen shoemakers, tailors, weavers, bakers, 
carpenters," &c. sending their children for years to Latin and 
Grammar schools, he remarks — " During the hours of recess 
from scholastic discipline, nature resumes her empire, and, by 
her irresistible power, obliges the children to frisk and romp about, 
and to enjoy those various and pure pleasures which result from 
activity and amusement. But these enjoyments are no sooner 
over, than the abhorred ideas of unnatural confinement, and of a 
constrained attention to jargon, which to them is completely unin- 
telligible, instantly recur, and harass and terrify their imagina- 
tions. The fruitless and painful labours which such prepos- 
terous conduct in managing the early education of youth produce, 
are immense, and truly ridiculous." P. 448. 

V. In regard to the art of writing, which is chiefly a mecha- 
nical exercise, the quality of which depends somewhat on the taste 
of the pupil — a great degree of fastidiousness exists, and hy far 
too mvch importance is attached to the acquisition of an " ele- 
gant handy To so disgusting a degree has this predilection 
been carried, on certain occasions, that all the qualities of a good 
teacher have been considered as concentrated in this one acquire- 
ment ; and persons have been selected to superintend the instruc- 
tion of youth, who were destitute of almost every other qualifica- 
tion, merely because they could write " a fine text," or " an ele- 
gant running hand." The art of communicating our thoughts 
by writing, is one of the most useful accomplishments, which 
every person from the highest to the lowest ranks of society 
ought to possess. To attain a certain degree of neatness and 
regularity in writing, is highly desirable ; and where a taste for 
elegance in this art exists, it should be encouraged, though not at 
the expense of more substantial acquirements. To write straight, 
to attend to the proper use of capital letters, and to arrange the 
subject of writing into distinct sentences and paragraphs, so as to 
render the writing easily legible, and the sentiments perspicuous 
to others, should be considered as the great object of this art ; 
and such qualities of writing are undoubtedly of more importance, 
in the practical purposes to which it may be applied, than the 
acquirement of the most elegant " dashes" and " flourishes" of 
penmanship. I have, indeed, known but few individuals who 
have prided themselves in such showy accomplishments, who 
were not extremely superficial in their other attainments. It is a 
very odd circumstance, and shows to what a ridiculous length a 
fastidious taste for elegant writing may be carried.! ':that most of 
the higher ranks, who have been taught by the first writing- 
masters, now consider it as fashionable to write an illegible 



56 ABSTRACT ARITHMETICAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

scrawl, which is nothing else than a caricature of good plain 
writing — which is the pest of merchants, printers, editors, and 
every other class of correspondents — which costs them a world 
of trouble before it can be read ; and, in many cases, the very 
names of the writers can scarcely be deciphered. This is ele- 
gance with a witness ; it is carrying it to its highest pitch of per- 
fection, by rendering the art of writing almost useless for the 
purpose for which it was intended. I do not mean, by these 
remarks, to insinuate that care and attention should not be 
bestowed, in order to acquire a neat and accurate mode of wri- 
ting ; but merely to modify that undue degree of importance 
which is attached to the accomplishment of " fine writing," and 
to impress upon the mind this sentiment, that a man may be pos- 
sessed of very slender attainments in this art, in respect to ele- 
gance, and yet prove a good general teacher ; while another may 
excel in all the ornamental flourishes of penmanship, and, at the 
same time, be altogether unqualified for directing the young mind 
in knowledge and virtue. I have known parents and guardians 
who seemed to consider the most useful and substantial accom- 
plishments of youth as of little value, while their children remained 
in the smallest degree deficient in the flimsy ornaments of wri- 
ting, and the higher elegancies of penmanship. In a word, — to 
arrest and record the useful ideas which pass through our minds, 
to communicate them to others, in such well-defined characters, 
and with such external neatness and order as may be most per- 
spicuous and easily legible — to acquire a certain degree of facility 
and rapidity in forming characters and words — and to state mer- 
cantile accompts with taste, accuracy, and precision — should be 
considered as the great objects of the art of writing, beyond 
whic!h it is of little importance to aspire ; though, at the same 
time, no individual should be discouraged from indulging a taste 
for elegance in this department, when it does not absorb the atten- 
tion from more important pursuits. 

VI. With regard to our mode of teaching Arithmetic, a va- 
riety of strictures might be made. This department of scholas- 
tic instruction, like all the rest, is generally conducted in too ab- 
stract a manner — too much detached from the objects of sense, 
and from the pursuits of science and the business of human life, 
to which it has a reference. As all our notions on any branch 
of human knowledge are originally derived from sensible objects, 
so our ideas of numbers and their various relations and combina- 
tions, must be derived from the same source ; and consequently, 
without a reference to the original objects and ideas whence the 
notion of numbers is derived, no accurate impression of their 



ABSTRACT ARITHMETICAL INSTRUCTIONS. 67 

signification and use can be made on the juvenile mind. A boy 
may be taught to distinguish the character 9 from the rest of the 
digits, and yet may remain devoid of a distinct conception of the 
idea for which it stands ; and, in the same manner, he may be 
taught by rote, that 9 4-8=17 ; that 16 — 9=7 ; that 7 times 8 
are 56 ; and that the quotient of 84, divided by 14, is equal to 6, 
M'ithout attaching any definite conception to such arithmetical 
processes. — By neglecting to illustrate the fundamental rules of 
arithmetical computation, in a familiar and amusing manner, by 
presenting to the eye the precise objects or ideas which numbers 
represent, we leave the young arithmetician to grope in the dark, 
and to a vagueness and confusion of conception in all the subse- 
quent operations of this useful study. 

In most of our elementary arithmetical works, the questions 
for exersise in the different rules are not so simple and interesting 
to young minds as they might be rendered. The practical use 
of the various operations — the commercial transactions to which 
they refer, and the extent and capacity of the weights and mea- 
sures about which their calculations are employed, are seldom 
appreciated with any degree of precision, for want of the original 
ideas denoted by the terms employed, and for want of those 
models and representations of money, weights, and measures, by 
which they might be illustrated. In many instances, too, there is 
a studied brevity and obscurity, and a tendency to puzzle and 
perplex, instead of rendering the operations of arithmetic simple 
and perspicuous. While a young person may easily be made to 
perceive the object and meaning of such questions as the follow- 
ing — " What is the price of 30 lemons at twopence a-piece ?" or, 
" If one pair of shoes cost 5s. 6d., what will 7 pair of shoes 
cost ]" — he is quite puzzled to conceive what is the precise mean- 
ing of scores of questions arranged in columns in the following 

manner— 497865 a id 7643984 a 3|<i.— 46794 a 4s. 7^</.— 

444766 a 15s. ll|<i., &c. &c. Even although he may happen 
to perform mechanically the operations intended, he frequently 
knows nothing at all of the principle and object of his calcula- 
tions. It is true, indeed, the teacher is expected to explain the 
nature and design of such questions; but in a crowded promis- 
cuous school he cannot afford time to give the necessary explana- 
tions to every individual. And why should it be requisite? Why 
should not every book on arithmetic be so perspicuous and ex- 
plicit as to render the meaning and object of every question clear 
and well defined even to the youthful understanding? And why 
should not questions, circumstances, and objects, be selected aa 
arithmetical exercises, which are familiar to the young, and cal- 



58 WANT OP ACCOMMODATION IN SCHOOLS. 

culated to awaken their curiosity and attention? In short, the 
greater pari of our arithmetical treatises, like our " School Collec- 
tions," " English Readers," and " Beauties of Eminent Writers," 
are calculated for men of advanced years, instead of being 
adapted to the capacities and the range of thought possessed by 
boys and girls of from eight to twelve years of age. I might 
have enlarged to an indefinite extent on this topic ; but several 
additional remarks may be introduced more appropriately in the 
sequel, when I shall take an opportunity of throwing out a 
few hints for the improvement of the present system of edu- 
cation. 

In addition to the above remarks, I shall now briefly state a 
few miscellaneous circumstances which have a tendency either 
to impede the education of the young, or to render it disagreeable 
and irksome. 

I. In the first place, in most of our schools both in town and 
country — there is a deplorable want of ample accommodation, 
and of convenient school furniture. In many cases, a hundred 
children are compressed into a space scarcely sufficient for the 
easy accommodation of one-third of that number, and appear 
huddled together like a flock of sheep pent up in a narrow pen. 
Scarcely a passage can be obtained for moving from one place to 
another ; and when one class is about to retire, and another is 
called up, a noise, and jostling, and hubbub ensue, which throws 
the whole school into confusion. The narrow and unsteady 
forms on which the scholars are obliged to sit — the awkward 
tables — the confined air — and the press and general disorder 
which frequently occur, all conspire to render the hours devoted 
to instruction tedious and unpleasant, and to make the school 
partake something of the nature of a jail.* Besides, in most of 
our cities and towns, the school-rooms are generally situated in 
dark closes or narrow lanes, where there is a sufficiency neither 
of light nor of pure air, nor of space for the occasional amusement 
of the children ; so that learning, instead of being connected with 
cheerful and enlivening objects, becomes associated with every 
thing that is gloomy, dirty, and disagreeable. A school has gene- 
rally been considered as a " noisy mansion ;" and, as presently 

* It may be proper to state, that in these, and the preceding and subse- 
quent remarks, there is no particular allusion to Grammar-schools and other 
public seminaries for instruction in the higher branches of education : but 
chiefly to those schools both in town and country where the mass of the 
community is attempted to be instructed in the common branches of edu- 
cation. 



CONFINEMENT IN SCHOOLS. 59 

conducted, it is next to impossible it should be otherwise. There 
is nothing which produces greater annoyance to a teacher, than 
the hum and the frequent clamours of a hundred tongues assaihng 
him on every side; and wherever such noisy turbulence daily pre- 
vails, it is impossible that a train of rational instructions can be 
successfully carried forward. Of the many causes of noise and 
confusion in schools, I am persuaded this is none of the least — 
the want of space and proper accommodation for the various 
movements, classifications and arrangements, which the business 
of instruction requires — and the want of separate apartments, or 
of an ample inclosed area around the school, into which a portion 
of the children, even during school-hours, might occasionally be 
sent, either for amusement, or for the preparation of their lessons, 
so as to prevent the general annoyance of the teacher. 

2. Another circumstance which tends to make learning dis- 
agreeable to the young, is, that they are in general confined too 
long in school. When a boy is first sent to school, he is kept in 
a confined posture for two or three hours at a time, and generally 
for five or six hours in a day. His direct attention to his lesson, 
duriiTg all this time, does not perhaps exceed fifteen or twenty 
minutes. During the whole of the remaining hours he receives 
no instruction, and either sits as stiff as a poker-, or becomes 
restless and noisy, or sinks into sleep. He dares not speak to his 
companions for fear of punishment, he cannot, without assistance, 
apply his attention to the unknown characters and sounds he is 
set to learn, he cannot amuse himself with his windmills and 
whistles, and, consequently, he feels himself in a state destitute 
of enjoyment. Can it then be wondered at that young people 
should so frequently feel an aversion to school, and require to be 
driven to it as slaves to their task-work, or as culprits to a jail? 
In such a case as I have now supposed, there is no reason why a 
child should be confined to school beyond half an hour at any one 
time; and it is a piece of absurdity, and even of cruelty, to pro- 
long their confinement a moment beyond the limits which are 
essentially requisite for their instruction ; and yet many parents 
are so foolish as to think, that the progress of their children ought 
to keep pace with the number of hours they are immured within 
the walls of the school-room. Children are not mere machines, 
whose movements may be regulated by weights and springs ; 
they must give scope to their natural vivacity and desire for 
activity, and must feel, like all other animals, when they are 
confined to unnatural attitudes, and cramped in their movements. 
The tongue — that " unruly member" among all ranks and ages — 
cannot be restrained ; the space of twelve inches iiquare, allotted 



60 CONFINEMENT IN SCHOOLS. 

them for their seat, they will not be confined to ; their feet and 
limbs will not remain in that precise mathematical position which 
order is supposed to require ; neither will their hands remain in 
the same unvaried posture as those of a marble statue, but will 
occasionally be pushing, first towards one side, and then towards 
another for the benefit of their companions. Hence arise noise, 
dissension, altercation, and disorder — the chief circumstances 
which render corporal punishment at all expedient in public 
schools. 

To confine a little boy in school, contrary to his inclination, 
when no useful purposes can be served by it, and when it is pro- 
ductive of so many inconveniences to the teacher, to the general 
interests of the school, and to the boy himself — appears to be the 
height of folly and imprudence, and must present to the juvenile 
mind a forbidding prospect of the path which leads to the temple 
of knowledge. Even when children have advanced to that stage 
in their education where they are capable of preparing their les- 
sons by themselves, it appears improper to confine them longer 
than their attention can be fixed to their scholastic exercises. 
Fifteen or twenty minutes of unremitting application to their les- 
sons before and after having been heard by their teacher in their 
respective classes, would be of more importance, in promoting 
their progress in learning, than two or three hours spent in j^awn- 
ing over their books, or devoted, as is usually the case, to noisy 
prattle and impertinence. Those scholars who are farther ad- 
vanced, or are engaged in arithmetical or other processes, may 
remain during all the hours usually allotted to scholastic instruc- 
tion. — In throwing out these remarks, I do not mean to insinuate, 
that teachers should have much less confinement in public schools 
than they now have ; I only propose it as a principle, which 
should generally be acted upon, that children should never be 
confined to school a minute longer than is absolutely necessary 
for their instruction. And, if this principle were generally recog- 
nised, promiscuous schools would no longer present a scene of 
idleness and impertinence, of noisy bustle and confusion. But, 
whatever may be the opinion of teachers on this head, the majo- 
rity of parents in the present age are generally in opposition to 
all such arrangements. 

3. The exercise of undue severity towards the young, and 
the want of a disposition to bestow commendation where it is 
due — is another circumstance which retards the beneficial effects 
of education. In every rank and department of human life, man- 
kind are too much disposed to find fault with the opinions and 
conduct of others, and to pass a harsh sentence on the minor 



SEVERITY TOWARDS THE YOUNG. 61 

delinquencies of their neighbours ; while they are slow in bestow- 
ing their commendation on those actions and qualities which are 
laudable and excellent. This disposition, we have reason to be- 
lieve, is too frequently displayed in public seminaries of instruc- 
tion. In many instances, trivial faults are magnified into great 
offences ; corporal punishment is inflicted for slight inadvert- 
encies ; the terms, blockhead, scoundrel, villain, ass, dunce, 
numskull, and other degrading epithets, are liberally applied to 
the youthful group, because they occasionally give way to their 
playful humours, or because they do not thoroughly comprehend 
what has never been clearly explained to them. When their 
conduct is unimpeachable, they are simply screened from punish- 
ment ; but the meed of praise for diligence and improvement — 
which has so obvious a tendency to cheer and animate the youth- 
ful mind — is slowly and reluctantly bestowed. Those endearing 
appellations to which they are accustomed under the domestic 
roof are seldom heard in the village school ; and scolding, threat- 
ening, and the detested lash, are too frequently " the order of the 
day." While they are sometimes exercised in writing the follow- 
ing sentiment on their * copy -hooks, ^'- Commendation animates 
the mind,'''' the voice of praise and commendation is seldom heard 
resounding from the desk, because, forsooth, they have not yet 
attained to perfection in their behaviour, or in any of their scho- 
lastic exercises. Imperfections attach themselves to the perform- 
ances of every human being; but where should we find a person 
grown up to manhood, who would not feel indignant at being per- 
petually found fault with in all his operations, and who would not 
be discouraged in the prosecution of his plans, when that portion 
of praise to which he is justly entitled is studiously withheld ? An 
assemblage of children in a school is a republic in miniature, 
animated materially by the same principles, passions and interests, 
as those which appear in action on the theatre of the great world, 
only directed to inferior objects and pursuits. They must, there- 
fore, feel indignant at the epithets, the threatenings, and the 
blustering, with which they are so frequently assailed, and must 
also feel that injustice is done them, when every trivial fault and 
oversight is magnified into a crime. And, on the other hand, 
we know by experience, that nothing contributes more to cheer 
and stimulate the juvenile mind than to receive the merited ap- 
probation of guardians and instructors. 

4. Another circumstance prejudicial to an accurate and en- 
lightened education, is the practice of hurrying children too ra- 
pidly from one hooh to another. In the " Statistical View of 
Education in Scotland," published in the Christian Instructor 

6 



62 KAPID CHANGE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

during the year 1819, it is stated by most of the teachers, that 
the children at their several schools can read the New Testament 
by the time they have been one year at school. Nay, some of 
them assert, that they can read it in six months, and even during 
the second and third quarters.* That the New Testament is put 
into the hands of children at the periods now stated, and that they 
are allowed to stammer through it in the best manner they can, 
is doubtless a fact, and a fact which is much to be regretted; but 
that a child that goes to school at the age of four or five, is able, 
in ordinary cases, to read the New Testament with any tolerable 
degree of accuracy and ease, in six, nine, or even in twelve 
months, is altogether incredible. There are many passages in 
this book as difficult to be read as the writings of the generality of 
English authors ; and, if a boy or girl can once read it with pro- 
priety and ease, a very little additional practice will suffice to ena- 
ble him to read any other English work. The statements to 
which I refer, however, show that the practice of hurrying chil- 
dren from one book to another, is too prevalent in many of the 
parochial schools of this country, arid must, consequently, be 
attended with a train of pernicious effects. I have seen children 
sent to school with a Testament in their hand, as a class-book, 
who could not read a single verse, and could scarcely pronounce 
two or three of the easiest vocables without pausing to spell almost 
every word that occurred, and who, at the same time, appeared 
deficient in thv.ir knowledge of the characters of the alphabet. 
Before children can read such a book as the New Testament, with 
any degree of ease and fluency, they must be trained to the exer- 
cise of spelling, and of reading a variety of appropriate lessons 
accommodated to their capacities, till they can read a sentence or 
a paragraph without blundering or hesitation. But how is this 
proficiency to be acquired 1 — how can a child, with propriety, be 
transferred from one spelling-book to another^and from one series 
of reading-lessons to another, in the space of six or eight months ? 
The practice to which I refer seems almost to imply, that they are 
conducted at once from a twopenny Primer to the Evangelical 
History or the Acts of the Apostles. A pupil should be able to 
read with ease every initiatory book that is put into his hands be- 
fore he is transferred to another. For, by passing with a rapid 
transition from one book to another, and to lessons which are too 
difficult for his articulation and comprehension, he will be apt to 
acquire a hesitating and a blundering habit of reading ; he will 

* See Christian Instructor for August and November, 1819, pp. 561 and 
763. 



RESULTS OF INEFFICIENT INSTRUCTION. 63 

be discouraged in his progress ; he will seldom attempt to aim at 
accuracy and perfection ; he will apju'eciate few of the ideas con- 
tained in his lessons; he will seldom acquire even the elements 
of accurate spelling and pronunciation, and will be apt to continue 
through life, an awkward, an incorrect, and an injudicious reader. 
5. The last circumstance I shall mention, in the meantime, as 
prejudicial to an accurate and enlightened education, is — the at- 
tempt to teach three or four branches of education at the same 
time. The principle of the division of labour, and its utility 
when applied to the various departments of art, science, and com- 
merce, are now fully appreciated and realized ; and to this cir- 
cumstance is to be attributed many of the improvements of 
modern times. In cities and large towns this principle has also 
been ap[)lied successfully to the art of teaching. But it is well 
known that in the majority of schools, especially in the country, 
an attempt is made to teach reading, grammar, writing, arithme- 
tic, book-keeping, mathematics, Latin, French, and other branches, 
in the same school, by the same teacher, and at the same time. 
The consequence is, that none of them is taught with efficiency 
and accuracy — which can only be obtained by allotting separate 
hours for each distinct department of knowledge, and, if possible, 
having separate teachers for every branch of scholastic instruc- 
tion. Before this principle, however, can be followed out to its 
full extent in country schools, a variety of arrangements require 
to be made, a variety of difficulties and obstructions removed, and 
a variety of new scholastic institutions established — the details of 
which I shall postpone to a subsequent section of this work. 

Such is a brief sketch of some of the evils and defects connected 
v/lth the system of instruction which has so long prevailed in this 
country. It treats rational beings as if they were mere machines 
— it presents the /brm of education without the substance — it ex- 
pends its energies on iDords inotead of things — it rests in the 
means of knowledge, without prosecuting the end — it stimulates 
the memory^ and even tortures it, by cramming its compartments 
with sounds instead of sense, but permits the understanding to 
remain in darkness and desolation — it indirectly fosters malignant 
passions, but leaves the benevolent affections waste and unculti- 
vated — it throws a gloom over the enjoyments of the young, 
instead of inspiring them with delight at the prospect of being 
introduced to the sublime and interesting scenes presented in the 
temple of knowledge — it conveys- a jumble of confused notions 
into their minds, but leaves them ignorant of all that is grand and 
ennobling, and interesting to man as a rational and immortal in» 



64 RESULTS OP INEFFICIENT EDUCATION. 

telligence. In proof of these positions, we need only look around 
us on the various ranks of society. Where is there one individual 
out of twenty to be found, who has his mind enlightened in the 
knowledge of those subjects with which every human being, con- 
sidered as a rational, social, and immortal being, ought to be 
acquainted ? Where is there even to be found a relish for useful 
information and intellectual improvement, among the majority of 
those who have gone the round of the usual course of education? 
And where are to be seen the moral effects of our scholastic train- 
ing on the stage of social and active life ? Is not ignorance still a 
prominent trait in the great mass of our population? Do not vice 
and immorality very generally prevail ? And are not selfishness 
and avarice, envy and revenge, sensuality and other grovelling 
affections, still the distinguishing characteristics of the majority of 
the lower orders, and even of the higher ranks of society, not- 
withstanding the scholastic process through which they have 
passed ? If any individuals in our times have been excited to the 
prosecution of rational and scientific pursuits, the stimulus has 
been derived from other quarters, from other circumstances, and 
from other institutions. The greater part of the benefit derived 
from the existing system, consists in a considerable portion of our 
population having acquired, to a certain degree, the art of reading, 
and, consequently, the capacity of rendering it subservient to the 
acquisition of knowledge, when certain peculiar and favourable 
circumstances in after life conspire to stimulate their mental 
activity^ and to produce a relish for rational enjoyments. But, 
it may be affirmed, without the least hesitation, that there is not 
one out of twenty of the population who is stimulated, in this way, 
to rise superior to his grovelling associates in the scale of intelli- 
gence. — Such considerations evidently show, that the system of 
instruction hitherto adopted is glaringly defective and inefficient 
for the improvement of society in knowledge and virtue ; — and 
must be subverted and new-modelled, if ever we expect to see 
mankind raised to that rank which they ought to hold in the scale 
of moral and intellectual excellence. Till this object be accom- 
plished, I verily believe, that, notwithstanding the instructions de- 
livered from a thousand pulpits, very little change to the better 
will appear on the face of general society ; for the public instruc- 
tions of religion are neither understood nor appreciated by the one. 
half of our church-going population, owing to the deficiency of 
their moral culture in the early periods of life. That such a futile 
and inefficient system of tuition should have so long prevailed in 
this enlightened age, as it is generally termed, and that no power- 
ful and general exertions should have been made for its improve- 



aUALlPlCATIONS OP TEACHEltS, 65 

ment, is little short of a libel on the common sense and the 
Christianity of our country. 

In throwing out the preceding hints on the errors and deficien- 
cies of the present system of education, let it be carefully remem- 
bered, that I am far from attaching blame indiscriminately to that 
respectable body of men who superintend the parochial and other 
seminaries in this country. It is indeed to be regretted, that there 
are too many persons employed as teachers who consider them- 
selves as sufficiently qualified for the office, if they can write a 
tolerably good hand and cast accounts. But, on the other hand, 
it is one of the pleasing signs of our times, that the characters 
and qualifications of teachers are rapidly advancing in respectabili- 
ty, and our public schools are in general filled with men of learn- 
ing and talent. It is to the system of teaching, — and not to the 
respectable individuals who act under it, — that these strictures 
more particularly refer. I am fully aware of the difficulties and 
the opposition which teachers have to encounter when they deviate 
from the common mode — arising from prejudices in favour of 
established practices, the ignorance of parents, and the foohsh 
and unchristian modes by which many children are trained under 
the domestic rooT. Many of our intelligent teachers perceive the 
evils of the present system, but they are obliged^ in the mean- 
time, to act under it. In their individual and insulated capacity, 
unsupported by public patronage, they cannot remove its essential 
defects, nor attempt any material or important improvement, in 
consequence of the current of popular opinion ; and their deviation 
from established practices would, in certain cases, tend to injure 
their pecuniary interests. 1 have known instructors of youth 
who have attempted improvements similar to some of those above 
hinted at, who were afterwards constrained to throw them aside, 
owing to the causes now specified. I knew one in particular, 
who selected the most simple and interesting reading-lessons, and 
caused his pupils to give an account of every leading idea con- 
tained in them — who likewise attempted to explain the meaning 
of every question. Psalm and passage, which was to be commit- 
ted to memory, and consequently, a very small portion only was 
prescribed, that it might be clearly understood and accurately 
repeated. But this plan could not be endured by those who 
estimate the quantity of instruction by the number of unmeaning 
lines and vocables which their children can vociferate. Such 
persons consider the repetition of three or four pages of mere 
words without ideas, as of far more importance than the com- 
munication of a hundred well-defined notions. He also caused 
the children, after their lessons were prepared and rehearsed, to 

6* 



G6 NECESSITY OF IMPROVEMENT IN EDUCATION. 

write upon slates — letters, triangles, parallelograms, and other 
mathematical figures and diagrams, in order to keep them fully 
employed while in school ; and occasionally permission was 
granted to scratch whatever they pleased on their slates — men, 
horses, houses, windmills, or any other fancy, as a reward for 
the attention they had previously bestowed. But he was obliged 
to desist from the prosecution of these and other plans, in conse- 
quence of " the hue and cry" which was raiseci'about such " tri- 
fling modes of tuition." 

It is, therefore, pretty obvious, that no general or extensive 
improvement in the system of education can be expected, till a 
strong conviction be produced in the minds of the intelligent 
public of the necessity of a more rational and efficient system 
being adopted, and till a powerful and simultaneous movement 
take place among all classes, in order to the erection and endow- 
ment of seminaries calculated to produce a moral and an intellec- 
tual education. For many of the principles which pervade the 
present mode of tuition require to be completely reversed, and a 
system organized which shall form the foundation of the future 
progress of the human race — which will bear the test of succeed- 
ing and enlightened ages — which will render the acquisition of 
knowledge pleasant and desirable to the young — and which will 
embrace every thing that is interesting to man as an intellectual 
being, as a member of society, and as a candidate for a blessed 
immortality. 

In the meantime, I am fully convinced, (however extravagant 
and paradoxical the sentiment may appear,) that the great majori- 
ty of our youth acquire more real and substantial knowledge, 
during their play hours, and in their various amusements and in- 
tercourses with each other, than they acquire during the formal 
process of teaching while in school. At these times they acquire 
a rude knowledge of the appearances and qualities of various ob- 
jects ; of some of the laws of Nature and its general scenery; of 
the forms, economy, and varieties of vegetables, — of the habits 
and instincts ofanimals; of the application of several mechanical 
powers ; and of the various modifications of human temper and 
action. Their games at shuttle-cock, nine-pins, marbles, balls 
and tops — their exercises in swimming, running, climbing, swing- 
ing and jumping — their visits to museums, menageries, and other 
exhibitions of natural and artificial curiosities — their views of the 
shipping, and the operations connected with it in seaport towns — 
their occasional excursions to the delightful and romantic scenes 
of the country, and the daily spectacle of the ebbing and flowing 
of the sea, of the sun shining in his glory, and of the moon walk- 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENTS. 67 

ing in brightness among the host of stars — convey to their minds 
fragments of useful knowledge, more diversified and practical, 
than any thing they acquire from their catechisms, spelling-books, 
grammars, and " English Readers," in the manner in which they 
are generally taught. In school they acquire, indeed, the means 
of knowledge, in being taught the arts of reading, writing, and 
arithmetic ; but as they are seldom taught to apply these means 
to their proper ends, little knowledge is thereby acquired ; and, 
in the majority of instances, they depart from school, and pass 
the remainder of their lives, without ever thinking of making the 
further cultivation of their minds even a subordinate object of 
pursuit — glad that they are at length released from the confine- 
ment and drudgery connected with scholastic discipline. As a 
proof of this I need only appeal to the ignorance, the prejudices, 
the foolish opinions and the wayward passions, which still per- 
vade the greater portion of the inferior ranks of our population, 
and even of the middling and higher classes — and the disinclina- 
tion which so generally exists to rational investigations, and to 
prosecuting the path of mental improvement. 

Much has of late been said on the subject of aholisTiing cor- 
poral punishment in schools ; and it is certainly a highly de- 
sirable object, which we should endeavour to promote by every 
means in our power. But we can have little hope that this will 
ever be fully attained while the present plan of education con- 
tinues in operation, and while the majority of children are so in- 
judiciously trained, as at present, by their parents and guardians. 
If, however, the evils complained of in this chapter were re- 
moved ; if the books which are put into the hands of children 
were interesting and level to their comprehension ; if they were 
taught to understand the lessons they read and commit to memo- 
ry ; if the understanding and the affections were as frequently ex- 
ercised as the memory; if the mechanical drudgery of grammar 
were postponed to a period when they could enter into its spirit and 
applications ; if the processes of arithmetic were more frequently 
illustrated by sensible objects and representations ; if interesting ex- 
periments and representations, calculated to illustrate the operations 
of nature and art, were frequently exhibited ; if ample and agree- 
able accommodation were furnished, both within and without 
doors ; if they were not too long confined in school ; if a spirit 
of conciliation on the part of teachers, and a disposition to bestow 
merited commendation, were generally exercised ; if every branch 
of education were taught at separate hours, and the attention of 
the pupil completely engaged while in school ; and if a system 
of moral training were to form a prominent object in the business 



68 OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 

of education — we have good reason to believe that corporal pun- 
ishment might be almost, if not altogether superseded ; and the 
employment of teaching in crowded promiscuous schools — instead 
of resembling Paul's " fighting with beasts at Ephesus," might 
become a rational, interesting, and delightful employment, both 
to the teacher and to the scholars.* 



CHAPTER III. 

Hints in reference to a comprehensive and improved system of 

Education. 

The education of human beings, considered in its most exten- 
sive sense, comprehends every thing which is requisite to the cul- 

* The preceding strictures, chiefly written in 1821, were published in the 
Edinburgh Christian Instructor, for March 1822, and February 1823. The 
Author has good grounds for stating, that they proved a stimulus to the active 
mind of its learned Editor, the late Dr. A. Thomson, in exciting to those ar- 
rangements which were afterwards made in St. George's Parish, over which, 
he presided, for establishing schools on a more enlightened sj^stem, both for 
the children of the higher and the lower ranks v\'ithin that district. In the 
autumn of 1823, the author had several conversations with the Doctor, by 
special request, in reference to this subject, in which he unfolded his leading 
ideas on what he considered the true principles of education and the im- 
provements that requii-ed to be introduced, which in general met the Doc- 
tor's approbation, and appeai'cd to coincide with the views he had lately 
adopted on the sulrject. He showed the author, at the same time, a variety 
of natural and artificial objects, which he had partly purchased, and partly 
received as donations from certain benevolent ladies, with the view of intro- 
ducing them as part of an improved system of tuition which he intended 
soon to establish ; and urgently requested him to continue his disquisitions 
on education, in the Christian Instructor, at certain moderate intervals be- 
tween the appearance of the different essays, in order that the subject might 
be kept for some time before the view of the public. The intended com- 
munications, owing to certain circumstances, were never published ; but the 
substance of what was then intended to be communicated will be found in 
the following pages. The schools established by Dr. Thomson, alluded to 
above, along with the Edinburgh Sessional School, under the superintend- 
ence of Mr. Wood, are material improvements on the usual mode of scho- 
lastic instruction, and though deficient in many important particulars, ap- 
proximate, in a considerable degree, to the true intellectual mode of tuition. 
The strictures thrown out in the preceding pages, more particularly apply 
to the parochial and other schools in Scotland, for the instruction of the 
middle and lower classes ; but most of them are likevi^ise applicable to the 
general modes of tuition in England. Since the period stated above, when 
they were first written, a few schools on more improved plans, have been 
established ; but their number does not, perhaps, exceed twenty or thirty 
throughout the whole of North Britain ; so that the preceding remarks will 
still apply to the modes of instruction generally practised in our country. 



OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 69 

tivation and improvement of the faculties bestowed upon them by 
the Creator. It ought to embrace every thing that has a tendency 
to strengthen and invigorate the animal system — to enlighten and 
expand the understanding — to regulate the feelings and disposi- 
tions of the heart — and, in general, to direct the moral powers in 
such a manner as to render those who are the subjects of in- 
struction happy in themselves, useful members of society, and 
qualified for entering on the scenes and employments of a future 
and more glorious existence. The series of instructions by 
which these ends are to be attained, ought to be continued, not 
merely for five or six years, or less than the tenth part of the 
period of human existence — but during the whole of that inter- 
val which lies between the cradle and the grave. 

It is a very common but absurd notion, and has been too long 
acted upon — that the education of our youth terminates, or should 
terminate, about the age of thirteen or fourteen years. Hence, 
in an article on this subject, in one of our Encyclopedias, edu- 
cation is defined to be " that series of means by which the human 
understanding is gradually enlightened, between infancy and the 
period when we consider ourselves as qualified to take a part in 
active life, and, ceasing to direct our views to the acquisition of 
new knowledge or the formation of new habits, are content to act 
upon the principles we have already acquired." This definition, 
though accordant with general opinion and practice, is certainly 
a very limited and defective view of the subject. In the ordinary 
mode of our scholastic instruction, education, so far from being 
finished at the age above stated, can scarcely be said to have 
commenced. The key of knowledge has indeed been put into 
the hands of the young ; but they have never been taught to un- 
lock the gates of the Temple of Science, to enter within its por- 
tals, to contemplate its treasures, and to feast their minds on the 
entertainments there provided. Several moral rules and maxims 
have been impressed on their memories ; but they have seldom 
been taught to appreciate them in all their bearings, or to reduce 
them to practice in the various and minute ramifications of their 
conduct. Besides, although every rational means were employed 
for training the youthful mind till near the age of puberty, no 
valid reason can be assigned why regular instruction should 
cease at this early period. Man is a progressive being ; his fa- 
culties are capable of an indefinite expansion ; the objects to 
which these faculties may be directed are boundless and infinitely 
diversified ; he is moving onward to an eternal world, and, in the 
present state, can never expect to grasp the universal system of 
created objects, or to rise to the highest point of moral excellence. 



70 OBJECTS OF EDirCATION. 

His tuition, therefore, cannot be supposed to terminate at any 
period of his terrestrial existence ; and the course of his life ought 
to be considered as nothing more than the course of his education. 
When he closes his eyes in death, and bids a last adieu to every 
thing here below, he passes into a more permanent and expansive 
sphere of existence, where his education will likewise be progres- 
sive, and where intelligences of a higher order may be his in- 
structors ; and the education he received in this transitory scene, 
if it was properly conducted, will form the groundwork of all 
his future progressions in knowledge and virtue throughout the 
succeeding periods of eternity. 

There are two very glaring defects which appear in most of 
our treatises on education. In the first place, the moral tuition 
of youthful minds, and the grand principles of religion which ought 
to direct their views and conduct, are either entirely overlooked, 
or treated of in so vague and general a manner, as to induce a 
belief that they are considered as matters of very inferior moment ; 
and, in the business of teaching, and the superintendence of the 
young, the moral precepts of Christianity are seldom made to bear, 
with particularity, upon every malignant affection that manifests 
itself, and every minor delinquency that appears in their conduct 
— or to direct the benevolent affections how to operate in every 
given circumstance, and in all their intercourses and associations. 
In the next place, the idea that man is a being destined to an im- 
mortal existence, is almost, if not altogether overlooked. Volumes 
have been written on the best modes of training men for the pro- 
fession of a soldier, of a naval officer, of a merchant, of a physi- 
cian, of a lawyer, of a clergyman, and of a statesman ; but I 
know of no treatise on this subject which, in connection with other 
subordinate aims, has for its grand object to develop that train of 
instruction which is .most appropriate for man considered as a 
candidate for immortality. This is the more unaccountfible, since, 
in the works alluded to, the eternal destiny of human beings is 
not called in question, and is sometimes referred to as a general 
position which cannot be denied — yet the means of instruction 
requisite to guide them in safet}^ to their final destination, and to 
prepare them for the employments of their everlasting abode, are 
either overlooked, or referred to in general terms, as if they were 
unworthy of particular consideration. To admit the doctrine of 
the immortality of the human soul, and yet leave out the consi- 
deration of it, in a system of mental instruction, is both impious 
and preposterous, and inconsistent with the principle on which we 
generally act in other cases, \^'hich requires, that affairs of the 
greatest moment should occupy our chief attention. If man is 



IMPORTANCE OF A RIGHT EDUCATION. 71 

only a transitory inhabitant of this lower world, if he is journey- 
ing to another and more important scene of action and enjoyment, 
if his abode in this higher scene is to be permanent and eternal, 
and if the course of instruction through which he now passes has 
an important bearing on his happiness in that state, and his pre- 
parations for its emplo5'ments — every system of education must 
be glaringly defective which either overlooks, or throws into the 
shade, the immortal destination of human beings. 

If these sentiments be admitted as just, the education of the 
young must be a subject of the highest importance — and there 
cannot be an object more interesting to Science, to Religion, and 
to general Christian society, than the forming of those arrange- 
ments, and the establishing of those institutions, which are calcu- 
lated to train the minds of all ranks to knowledge and moral 
rectitude, and to guide their steps in the path which leads to a 
blessed immortality. In this process there is no period of human 
life that ouo;ht to be overlooked — we must be^rin the work of in- 
struction when the first dawning of reason begins to appear, and 
continue the process through all the succeeding periods of mortal 
existence, till the spirit takes its flight to the world unknown. 

In the following cursory observations, I shall, in the first place, 
offer a few general remarks on the proper training of the young 
during the earlier stages of life, and afterwards illustrate some of 
the modes of instruction which may be proper to be adopted in 
the more advanced stages of human existence. It may be pro- 
per, however, to premise, that I have no intention of presenting to 
the reader a detailed system of education, but only a few general 
hints in reference to the outlines of this important subject, and to 
the principles on which a system of rational tuition ought to be 
conducted. 

Section I, — On the Education of the Young during the period of 

Infancy. 

At the moment a child is ushered into the world, and first 
draws into its lungs the atmospheric air, it may be said to com- 
mence its education. What its sensations are, when it has emerged 
from the watery fluid with which it was surrounded, and inhales 
this new element, it is impossible to determine ; but from the 
sounds which it utters, we may reasonably conjecture that they 
are attended with pain. It struggles and cries — hunger produces 
an uneasy sensation — it feels a want — that feeling opens its lips, 
and makes it seize and greedily suck the nourishing breast of its 
mother. At this period its eyes are generally dull and languid ; 
it seems to keep them fixed and idle ; they want that lustre which 



78 PROCESS OF INFANT EDUCATION. 

they afterwards acquire; and if they happen to move, it is i^iither 
an accidental gave, than an exertion of the faculty of seeing. But, 
after some months have elapsed, its vision becomes distinct, its 
organs are fortified, and it becomes susceptible of various impres- 
sions from surrounding objects. Then the senses of seeing, hear- 
ing, tasting, touching, and smelling, begin to act with a certain 
degree of vigour ; all the avenues to the mind are throw open ; 
the objects of nature and art rush in crowds to their respective 
organs of sensation, and engrave an indefinite assemblage ol ideas 
upon the mind, though perhaps with a certain degree of irregu- 
larity and confusion. In this first stage of existence, the various 
sensations it feels, and the multifarious external objects it per- 
ceives, may be considered as so many instructors conveymg fhe 
rudiments of knowledge to the infant mind. 

As the infant advances in its new career, multitudes of objects 
of various descriptions begin to solicit its attention. A thousand 
sounds, of different degrees of intensity, and variously modified, 
strike its ears, producing various indescribable emotions ; a thou- 
sand visible objects of diversified forms and colours present them- 
selves to its visual organs, producing pleasure or pain, desire or 
aversion. By insensible degrees it learns to see and to hear — to 
mark the difierence between one sound and another, and between 
one object of vision and another — to distinguish the form and 
countenance of its mother from those of other individuals, and to 
take an interest in some of the objects which compose the surround- 
ing scene. Being uniformly struck with the same sensations and 
emotions in the presence of the same objects, its memory begins 
to be exercised, and it acquires a more accurate idea, and a more 
distinct remembrance of them, in proportion to the frequency with 
which these objects are presented to view. Its body, in the mean 
time, gradually expands, and becomes more firm, vigorous, and 
alert. It crawls along the nursery or parlour, below tables and 
chairs, examining every object that falls in its way, and appears 
delighted in exerting its muscular powers. It tries to stand erect, 
and at length to walk ; it tumbles and rolls on the floor, uttering 
screams of pain and disappointment. Numberless and repeated 
falls lead to more caution, and teach it to endeavour to preserve 
the equilibrium of its body, and to stand firmly on its legs ; and 
the more frequent and painful the falls, the more instructive they 
prove, to teach it to balance its body, and to walk with adroitness 
and ease. Having acquired, after repeated exertions, a certain 
firmness of step, it runs from one place to another, eagerly intent 
upon new objects and pursuits, and feeling a delight in proportion 
as the range of its perceptions is increased. It tries to climb a 



PROCESS OP INFANT EDUCATIO]T. 73 

stair, and, after repeated efforts, and exertions of hands and feet, 
succeeds in the attempt ; but, when arrived at the top, and wishing 
to descend, it looks down to the bottom, and, remembering the 
falls it formerly experienced, feels a sense of danger, and screams 
for assistance. 

The child (whom we shall now distinguish by the masculij;ie 
pronoun) now runs about through the garden or in the fields, and 
perceives a variety of objects and operations. He sees a stone 
thrown into the water, and sink to the bottom ; he sees a piece 
of wood or the leaf of a tree fall into the same water, and yet 
float on the surface ; he amuses himself with numberless experi- 
ments of this kind, and from these he gradually acquires his first 
ideas of the specific gravity of bodies. If he take the stone and 
the wood out of the water, and by chance they fall upon his feet, 
he learns that the heavier body falls with more force than the 
lighter, from the unequal degree of pain occasioned by the fall, 
and has his mind impressed with the idea of their unequal hard- 
ness and weight. He strikes a table with a stick, and soon after, 
a pane of window-glass with the same weapon ; he perceives the 
glass broken to shivers, while the table remains as before, and 
thus learns the difference between substances that are hard, and 
those that are brittle, and that some bodies are broken with a blow 
which others can resist. He views with pleasure a brilliant light, 
and ventures to put his fingers to the blazing hearth, or to the 
flame of a candle, but feels a sudden sensation of acute pain, 
which warns him of the danger of using too much familiarity with 
fire, notwithstanding its alluring aspect. He sees a cow, a dog, 
or a cat, 'and is told its name, and, after frequent repetitions, he 
learns to connect the sound with the object which it is intended to 
represent. He sees a. horse walking along a road, and afterwards 
its figure as represented in an engraving, and soon learns to re- 
cognise the resemblance of the one to the other. In short, every 
person with whom he is acquainted, every individual object of 
which he becomes fond — his rattles and his bells, his drums and 
his whistles, his little coaches and his jumping Jacks, may all be 
considered as so many instructors conveying lessons to his open- 
ing mind. — In acquiring the information such objects are calcu- 
lated to afford, repeated exertions of the understanding must 
necessarily be made. The knowledge of any particular object, 
as to its powers and qualities, cannot be supposed to be attained 
without an effort similar to that which an adult person must ex- 
ert, when investigating the laws of Nature, and the general econ- 
omy of the universe. For, every thing a child sees or hears, in 
the first instance, all the marks and characters of Nature, ajid 

7 



74 PROCESS OF INFANT EDUCATION. 

the qualities and operations of surrounding objects, are as much 
unknown to him as the sciences of Philology, Mathematics and 
Astronomy, to the untutored savage ; and, consequently, require 
a certain degree of attention and reasoning before the knowledge 
of them can be acquired. 

The little student, however, prosecutes his observations and 
studies with apparent pleasure, and with evident marks of indus- 
try, and soon acquires pretty correct notions of the nature and 
relations both of the inanimate and of the living world. lie 
learns to correct the illusions to which he was at first exposed — 
to distinguish one object from another, and tS exert his memory 
so as to knT)w them aoain, and to recognise their general forms 
and qualities. It is amazing; what a decree of knowlcdiie a child 
has thus acquired before he arrives at the age of two years, or 
even twenty months. By this time he has made a thousand ex- 
periments on an indefinite variety of objects, all which he has 
arranged in his mind, and distinctly remembers. Light and heat, 
the properties of fire and flame, of water and air, the laws of 
projectiles and moving bodies, things sweet and bitter, soft and 
hard, rough and smooth, articulate sounds and the objects they 
denote, sounds soft or loud, agreeable or terrible ; horses, cattle, 
dogs, asses, sheep, ducks, birds, butterflies, beetles, worms, the 
clouds, the sun, moon, stars, and numerous other objects — are all 
distinguished, and many of their properties and relations indeli- 
bly imprinted on the mind. He has acquired more real know- 
ledge during this short period, than he generally does, on the 
present plan of instruction, throughout the eight or ten succeed- 
ing years of his life ; and it is a striking instance of tlie Benevo- 
lence of the Creator, and a prelude of the vast extent of know- 
ledge he is afterwards capable of acquiring, that all these acquisi- 
tions are not only made without pain, but, in the greater number 
of instances, are accompanied with the highest pleasure and en- 
joyment. 

In the process of instruction, now described, during the first 
two 5''ears of human existence, although Nature is the principal 
instructress, yet she frequently requires to be guided by the hand 
of Art ; and much is left to the judicious attentions of parents 
and guardians, that her benevolent designs may not be thwarted, 
and that her efforts may be conducted to their proper ends. In 
throwing out a few hints on this point, our remarks may be ar- 
ranged under the following heads — Physical, Moral, and Intel- 
lectual Education. 



NURSING OF INFANTS. 75 

1. The Physical Education of Infants. 

The influence of physical education during infancy, on the 
future happiness of the individual, is much greater, and nnore 
extensive in its consequences, than is generally iniao-ined. A 
proper attention to food, climate, cleanliness, air and exercise, 
may have an important effect, not only in developing the dilTerent 
parts of the body, an"d strengthening the animal system, but also 
in invigorating, and calling forth into exercise, the powers of the 
mind. We find, in advanced life, that the state of the body as to 
health or sickness, has a poM^erful influence on the vigour of the 
intellectual faculties ; and we have reason to believe that the same 
connection between the physical system and the development of 
mind exists in the most early period of life. A certain writer 
has observed that, " As the manifestations of mind depend on 
organization, it is conceivable why even talents and moral feel- 
ings depend on the influence of climate and nourishment." — In 
throwing out a few cursory remarks on this subject, I shall attend, 
in the first place, to 

The food of infants. As soon as an infant is ushered into the 
world. Providence has provided for it food exactly adapted to its 
situation. The milk of the mother is at first of a thin, watery 
consistence, fitted to evacuate the meconium, and no other sub- 
stance is found to be so efficacious for this purpose. Syrups, 
wines, oils, honey, or rhubarb, which have been so frequently 
administered to new-born infants, by rpidwives and nurses, are 
repugnant to nature, and are condemned, except in extraordinary 
cases, by every medical practitioner. Children require very little 
food for some time after birth ; and what they receive should be 
thin, weak, light, and of a cooling quality. After a few days the 
mother's milk becomes thicker and more nutritious, and should 
form the principal nourishment of the child during the first three 
months. It appears to be the dictate of nature, that every mother 
ouoht to suckle her own child, since she is furnished with the 
proper nutriment for this purpose ; and nothing but downright 
necessity should prevent her from undertaking the task, or induce 
her to have recourse to a substitute. We might tell the mother 
who, without necessity, throws the care of her issue upon a stran- 
ger, that the admirable liquor which the God of Nature has pro- 
vided for her child, may become mortal to her for want of a dis- 
charge, diffuse itself within, gather and stagnate, or, at least, 
bring on a dangerous fever — that there is a natural proportion 
between the blood that runs in the veins of a child, and the milk 
it receives from its mother — that to receive the caresses, to enjoy 
the smiles, and to mark the gradual progress of her child towards 



76 INFLUENCE OF AIR ON INFANTS. 

maturity, would be more than a compensation for all the fatigues 
she would undergo in watching over its infant years — that the 
mutual alfection of a mother and her child depends, in no incon- 
siderable degree, on the child's spending the period of its infancy 
in its mother's arms — and that, when she substitutes another in 
her place, the child naturally transfers its affection to the person 
who performs the duties of a mother. Byt, before such consi- 
derations can have much weight with the higher classes of society, 
who chiefly indulge in this practice, their general system of edu- 
cation must be altered and reformed. The daughters of the 
nobility and of opulent citizens, must be more accustomed to the 
open air and rural employments, and their bodies trained to the 
bearing of burdens, the endurance of severe heat or intense cold, 
and to the resisting of danger and fatigue ; — in short, they must 
be educated like the daughters of Betlmel and of Laban — the 
nobles of ancient times — who did not disdain to " keep their 
father's sheep," and to go " to the well of water, with their pitchers 
on their shoulders." 

As the child advances, he may be gradually accustomed to 
other food besides the milk of his mother — beginning with liquids, 
such as milk and sugar, broth, boiled biscuits, thin milk pottage, 
and similar aliments, and then going on to more solid nutriment, 
according to the strength of his digestive powers- The younger 
the child, the less nourishment should be given at one time, and 
the oftener repeated ; older children may take more food at once, 
and at longer intervals. All high-seasoned, salted, and smoke- 
dried provisions, tough, heavy, and fat meats, unripe fruits, sweet- 
meats, wines and spirituous liquors, are injurious to children. 
Few things are more so than the common practice of sweetening 
their food, which entices them to take a greater quantity than is 
necessary, and- makes them grow fat and bloated. All cramming 
of their stomachs, pampering them with delicate meats, and 
guzzling of ale and other fermented liquors, ought to be carefully 
avoided. Pure water for drink, plain and simple food — which 
will never induce them to take more than enough — and absti- 
nence from physic, except in very critical cases, will be found 
the most judicious means for preserving and confirming the health 
of children, and invigorating their mental powers. 

No less attention ought to be paid to the air they breathe, than 
to the food with which they are nourished. Pure atmospheric air 
is indispensable to the existence of every sensitive being, for 
where it is greatly corrupted or exhausted, animals languish or 
die. It may be regarded as a universal medicine and restorative, 
and as the principal pabulum of life. Wherever it is confined for 



INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON INFANTS. 77 

want of circulation, and impregnated with the deleterious fumes 
of sulphur, putrid substances, smoke, dunghills, excrements, and 
other noxious exhalations, it acts as a slow poison, induces 
diseases, and gradually undermines the human constitution. 
Hence the propriety of rearing children in apartments where the 
air is clear and dry, uncontaminated with the steam arising from 
cooking victuals, and from ironing linen, and from the breath and 
perspiration of persons crowded into a narrow room — and the 
necessity of frequently leading them abroad into the open air, to 
enjoy the light of heaven and the refreshing breeze. Hence the 
impropriety of crov/ding two or three children's beds into one 
small apartment, — of covering a child's face when asleep, and 
wrapping him up too close in a cradle, by which means he is 
forced to breathe the same air over and over again, all the time 
he sleeps. In great towns, where the poorer class of inhabitants 
live in low, dirty, confined houses, and narrow lanes, where pure 
air has seldom access, the want of wholesome air often proves 
destructive to their offspring; and those of them who arrive at 
maturity are most frequently weak and deformed. In the im- 
provements now going forward in society, it would be of vast 
importance to the health and comfort of the labouring classes, 
that such dwellings were completely demolished, and for ever 
prevented from again becoming the habitations of men. 

In connection with air, the influence of light ought not to be 
overlooked. Almost all organized bodies require the influence of 
light for their health, and the full development of their parts and 
functions. It changes the colour of plants and animals, and the 
complexion of man. As plants when deprived of light grow pale, 
and insects confined to dark places remain white, so those who 
spend their lives in their closets, or in gloomy apartments, acquire 
a pale and yellowish complexion, and many sickly persons be- 
come worse about sunset, and during the continuance of night. 
Hence the propriety of nursing children in light and cheerful 
apartments, and of carrying them frequently into the fields, to 
enjoy the full influence of the radiant sun. And hence it fol- 
lows, that dark habitations, close and narrow lanes, houses sunk 
beneath the level of a street, small windows, sombre walls, trees 
immediately in the front of dwellings, and whatever intercepts 
the light of heaven from the habitations of men, must damp the 
animal spirits, and prove noxious to the vigour of the human 
frame. Whereas, a full and uninterrupted view of the beauty, the 
variety, and the lively colours, of the scenes of nature, has the 
happiest effects on the temper, and a tendency to exercise and in- 
vigorate the powers of the mind ; — for there can be little doubt, 



78 IMPORTANCE OF CLEANLINESS. 

that the faculties of the understanding, and the dispositions of the 
heart, which characterize the individual in the future part of his 
life, acquire their particular bias and distinguishing features from 
the circumstances in which he is placed, and the objects with 
which he is surrounded, in early life. — It may not be improper to 
add, that, as the eyes of very young children are delicate, they 
should not at once be exposed to a strong light ; and, when they 
advance, as they are eager to stare at every thing, particularly at 
a brilliant light, their eyes should be turned so as to have the ob- 
ject in a straight line before them, or their backs turned directly 
to it. To allow them to look at it sideways, or with one eye, 
would teach them a habit of squinting. 

Few things are of more importance to the health and comfort 
of children than cleanliness. The functions of the skin are of 
peculiar importance in the animal system, and have a great influ- 
ence in preserving the health and vigour of the corporeal frame. 
Through its millions of pores, the insensible perspiration is inces- 
santly flowing, and more than the one-half of what we eat and 
drink is in this way discharged. Hence the danger which must 
arise from frequent obstruction of this essential function, from wet, 
excrements, dirty linens, and every kind of uncleanliness. From 
want of attention to this circumstance, various diseases of the 
skin, eruptions, catarrhs, coughs, the itch, obstructions of the first 
passages, and even many fatal disorders, derive their origin. It 
is injurious both to the health and the virtue of man ; it stupifies 
the mind, sinks it into a lethargic state, deprives him of animal 
enjoyment, and of the esteem and regard of others. Whereas 
cleanliness promotes both health and virtue, clears the under- 
standing, encourages to cheerfulness and activity, prevents many 
loathsome maladies, and procures the attachment and esteem of 
associates. Hence the incessant and minute attention which ought 
to be paid to this circumstance, by parents and nurses, in the 
rearing of the young. Cleanliness in domestic life, may be con- 
sidered as one of the cardinal virtues, as an essential requisite in 
the physical education of children, and, perhaps, the only province 
of parental care in which they can never do too much. The pores 
of the skin should be kept open by washing the body, and chang- 
ing the clothes and linen whenever they are unclean. In the first 
instance, children may be bathed in lukewarm water, and after- 
wards with water of a colder temperature, as they are able to 
bear it. Some parts of the body, such as the interior of the legs, 
the folds of the neck, the arm-pits, and the parts behind the ear, 
which are liable to be inflamed, demand particular attention. 
The nose, likewise, should be occasionally washed and thoroughly 



CLOTHING OF CHILDREN. 79 

cleaned ; it having been found, that the unpleasant smell peculiar 
to some infants, is bwing to the habitual neglect of cleaning that 
organ. Great attention ought to be paid to children in regard to 
their evacuations; and every thing that may occasion dampness, 
and every kind of offensive matter that might adhere to the skin, 
should be speedily removed. As children are liable to perspire 
more than adults, frequent change of their linen is a matter of 
some consequence ; and all parents who can afford it, should give 
them clean dry linen every day. It is as much the duty of parents 
to wash and clean their children, as it is to feed and clothe them ; 
and children that are frequently washed and kept clean, gradually 
improve in health and vivacity ; cleanliness becomes familiar to 
them, their spirits are enlivened, and they grow up virtuous, 
polite, and happy. 

The Russians, with all their ignorance and rusticity of man- 
ners, are said to be superior to the more refined English, French, 
and Germans, both in a delicate sensibility of cleanliness, and in 
the practical use of the bath. A foreign gentleman, travelling in 
Russia, had hired one of the natives as his groom or postilion. 
After having travelled several days together in very sultry 
weather, the semi-barbarian, upon his knees, requested his em- 
ployer to grant him leave of absence for two or three hours, to 
refresh himself with the luxury of a bath, which to him was in- 
dispensable, and the want of which he had long felt. — In Russia 
almost every house has its bath ; and the peasants in that country 
possess a refinement of sense, with respect to the surface of the 
body, with which the most elegant ladies in other countries seem 
totally unacquainted. Even the American Indians, who cannot 
change their furs so frequently as we can do our clothes, put un- 
der their children the dust of rotten wood, and renew it as often 
as it becomes damp. 

The clothing of children likewise requires some degree of skill 
and attention. This, indeed, is so simple a matter, that it is sur- 
prising that persons living in civilized countries should ever have 
erred so egregiously in regard to it ; and yet it is a fact, that 
many children have been rendered deformed, and others have 
lost their lives, by the pride and folly of their parents in respect 
to this circumstance. The time has not long gone by, (if it have 
yet passed,) since a poor child, as soon as it breathed the vital 
air, had as many rollers and wrappers — sometimes ten feet in 
length — applied to its body, as if every bone had been fractured 
in the birth ; and these were often drawn so tight, as to gall its 
tender frame, and even obstruct its vital organs — a piece of folly 
so repugnant to the dictates of nature, that even the most savage 



80 



CLOTHING OF CIHLDRE?f. 



nations never commit it ; and hence, deformed children are seldom 
or never found among them. By the weight and pressure of 
stays, bandages, heavy and tight clothes, children, who were 
well-propoitioned at their birth, have afterwards appeared with 
flat breasts, high shoulders, crooked spines, and other deformities. 
For when a child is cramped in its clothes, it naturally shrinks 
from the part that is hurt, and puts its body into unnatural pos- 
tures ; and every part of it, even the bones themselves, being soft 
and flexible, deformity, of some kind or other, is the natural re- 
sult. To this cause physicians have ascribed the numerous in- 
stances of children dying of convulsions soon after their birth. 

The general rule which reason suggests, in regard to the cloth- 
ing of children, is — " That a child have no more clothes than are 
necessary to keep it warm, and that they be quite easy for its 
body." In conformity to this rule, the dress of children should 
be simple, clean, light, and cheap — free, wide, and open, so as 
neither to impede the vital functions, nor the free and easy mo- 
tions of the body, nor prevent the access of fresh air, and be 
easily put on or taken off. The following cut exhibits the simple 




dress of a little girl. — Pins should be used as little as possible, 
and the clothes chiefly fastened with strings, which would prevent 



ABSURD PRACTICES IN CLOTHING. 81 

the occasional scratching of their tender skins, and those alarm- 
ing cries which so frequently proceed from this cause. Such a 
light and simple dress would induce children to live with less 
restraint in the society of each other; and check that silly pride, 
which leads them to ape the fashions of their superiors, and to 
value themselves on account of the finery of their clothes. During 
the first months, the head and breast may be slightly covered ; 
but as soon as the hair is sufficiently long to aflx)rd protection, 
there appears little necessity for either hats or caps, unless in. 
seasons of rain or cold. By keeping the breast and neck un- 
covered, they acquire more firmness, are rendered hardier, and 
less susceptible of being affected with cold. Besides, a child has 
really a more interesting aspect, when arrayed in the beautiful 
simplicity of nature, than when adorned with all the trappings 
which art can devise. The following anecdote, related by Hero- 
dotus, illustrates the advantage connected with a cool regimen of 
the head. " After the battle fought between the Persians, under 
Cambyses, and the Egyptians, the slain of both nations were 
separated ; and upon examining the heads of the Persians, their 
skulls were found to be so thin and tender, that a small stone 
would immediately perforate them ; while, on the other hand, the 
heads of the Egyptians were so firm, that they could scarcely be 
fractured by the largest stones." The cause of this remarkable 
difference was attributed to the custom of the Egyptians shaving 
their heads from earliest infancy, and going uncovered in all 
states of the vveather ; while the Persians always kept their heads 
warm by wearing heavy turbans. 

Attention ought likewise to be paid to the proper covering of 
the feet. It is scarcely necessary for children to use shoes be- 
fore they are a year old ; or if they do, the soles should be thin 
and soft. The form of the human foot is such, that, at the toes 
it is broad, at the heel narrow, and the inside of the foot is lono-er 
than the outside — a form which is evidently intended by Nature 
to enable us to stand and walk with firmness and ease. It is 
therefore a dictate of nature, that shoes should be made in the 
same form as the feet, and be sufficiently roomy for the toes to 
move with ease ; and in order to this, they must be formed upon 
two separate lasts, corresponding to the right and the left foot. 
How shoes came at first to be made tapering to a point at the 
toes, almost like a bodkin — how high-heels became the darling 
fashion of the ladies — and how a small foot came to be reckoned 
genteel — I pretend not to determine; but certainly nothing can 
be more absurd and preposterous. Such opinions and practices, 
along with many others which abound, particularly in the fashion- 



82 



ABSURD PRACTICES IN CLOTHING. 



able world, have a direct tendency to counteract the benevolent 
intentions of Nature, and arc nothing short of an attempt to ar- 
raign the wisdom of the Creator, in his arranging and proportion- 
ating the different parts of the human frame — as if puny man, by 
his foolish whims, were capable of improving the workmanship 
of Infinite Intelligence. — The following figures (taken from Dr. 
Faust) plainly show the absurdity of the shapes v/hich have been 
given to shoes. Fig. 1. shows the original shape of the sole of 
the left foot. Fig. 3. shows how the sole of the left shoe ought 
to be formed, — and Fig. 2. shows clearly that the shoes usually 
worn, and made on one last, cannot correspond to the natural 
shape of the foot. If they taper towards a point, the large toe, 
and some of the small ones, must be crushed and pressed against 
each other, causing pain to the wearer, and producing corns. 
The simplest and most accurate mode of taking the true measure 
and form of shoes, is, to place each foot upon a sheet of paper, 
and then draw its shape with a pencil, to which two separate 
lasts should nearly correspond, after having ascertained the curve 
of the upper part of the foot. 






With regard to the clothing of children, in general, it is the 
opinion of Dr. Faust, that, from the beginning of the third, to the 
end of the seventh or eighth year, "their heads and necks must 
be free and bare, the body clothed with a wide shirt, and frock 
with short sleeves, the collar of the shirt to fall back over that of 
the frock, with the addition of a woollen frock, to be worn between 
the shirt and the linen frock, durimr winter, and that the feet be 
'covered only with a pair of socks, to be worn in the shoes." 
Such a cheap and simple dress, if generally adopted, would 



SLEEP AND EXERCISE OF CHILDREN. 83 

undoubtedly be beneficial to mankind in general, and tend to pro- 
mote the strength, beauty, and graceful attitudes of children, — 
and, at the same time, check the foolish propensity of parents to 
indulge their children in flimsy ornaments and finery, beyond 
what their means can afford. At present, children are frequently 
muffled up with caps, hats, bonnets, cravats, pelisses, frills, 
muffles, gloves, ribbons, and other paraphernalia, as if they were 
to be reared like plants in hotbeds, — so that the shape and beau- 
tiful proportions which Nature has given them can scarcely be 
distinguished. I shall only add, that the dress of children ought 
to be kept thoroughly clean ; as dirty clothes not only gall and 
fret their tender skins, but tend to produce disagreeable smells, 
vermin, and cutaneous diseases ; and no mother or nurse, how- 
ever poor, can have any valid excuse for allowing her children to 
wallow in dirtiness. 

We may next offer a remark or two on the sleep and exercise 
of children. The exercise of the corporeal faculties is essen- 
tially necessary to the health, the growth, and the vigour of the 
young. The desire of exercise is indeed coeval with our exist- 
ence, which is plainly indicated in the delight which children take 
in beating with a stick, crawling along a floor, or climbing a 
stair, as soon as they are able to make use of their hands and 
feet. It is, therefore, the duty of parents to regulate this natural 
propensity, and direct it to its proper end. When children are 
very young, they may be exercised by carrying them about, giv- 
ing them a gentle swing, encouraging them to move their hands 
and feet, talking to them, alluring them to smile, and pointing out 
every thing that may please and delight their fancy. When they 
first begin to walk, the safest method of leading them about, is by 
taking hold of both their hands ; and when they fall, they should 
never be lifted up by one part only, such as by one hand or one 
arm, as luxations, or loosening of the joints, may be occasioned 
by this practice. The practice of swinging them in leading- 
strings, is sometimes attended with hurtful consequences. It 
induces them to throw their bodies forward, and press their whole 
weight upon their stomach and breast, by which their breathing 
is obstructed, and their stomach compressed. When they are 
able to walk with ease, they should be encouraged to run about 
in places where they are not exposed to danger, to exert their 
hands and limbs, and to amuse themselves in the company of 
their associates. When they cannot go abroad, they may be 
exercised in running along a room or a passage, or in leaping and 
dancing. A certain eminent physician used to say, " that he 
made his children dance, instead of giving them physic." When 



84 HOCKING OF CHILDREN IN CRADLES. 

children fall, or get into any difficulty in the course of their move- 
ments, if they are in no danger, we should never be forward to 
express our condolence, or to run to their assistance ; but leave 
them to exert their powers, and to scramble the best way they 
can, in order to extricate themselves from any painful situations 
in which they may have been involved. By being too attentive 
to them, and appearing too anxious, in such cases, we teach them 
to be careless of themselves ; — by seeming to regard every tri- 
fling accident which befalls them as a dreadful calamity, we 
inspire them with timidity, and prevent them from acquiring 
manly fortitude. 

With regard to the sleep of children, it is universally admitted, 
that they require far more than persons of adult age ; and the 
younger the child, the more sleep he requires. An adult requires 
only about seven hours in the twenty-four; but very young chil- 
dren require double that number. However long they may hap- 
pen to sleep, they should never be suddenly awakened. It is 
dangerous in the extreme to lull them asleep by doses of lauda- 
num, or other soporific medicines, as is frequently done by mer- 
cenary and indolent nurses. In order to induce children to 
repose, they are generally rocked in cradles ; but there is no abso- 
lute necessity for resorting to this expedient. If they are con- 
stantly kept dry and clean, and accustomed to fresh air, and not 
frequently disturbed, they will sleep comfortably and soundly 
without any violent agitation. Some of my own children were 
never in a cradle, and yet they were far more easily managed, 
in respect to sleeping, and watching, and other circumstances, 
than those of them who were accustomed to it ; and many similar 
instances, were it expedient, could be brought forward. But if 
they are to be rocked in cradles, it ought to be with the greatest 
gentleness. The violence with which children are sometimes 
rocked, jumbles their brain, and makes them uneasy, giddy, and 
stupid, and is consequently injurious, both to body and mind. If 
the practice of rocking, however, were altogether laid aside, it 
would be a great relief to mothers and nurses, and afford them 
more uninterrupted leisure for the performance of other domestic 
employments. — As it is viewed by some to be hurtful and dan- 
gerous for mothers to take their infants with them to bed, — in 
Italy, mothers who do so, use a machine, which protects them 
from all injury and danger. It is called arcuccio, and is 3 feet 
2 inches long, and the head-board 14 inches broad, and 13 inches 
high. 

1 shall only observe further, on the subject of physical educa- 
ion,-^that, when children begin to lisp out a few words, or sylla- 



MORAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 85 

bles, great care ought to he taken to give them an accurate and 
distinct pronunciation. Every sound we wish them to pronounce, 
should be slowly and distinctly uttered before them, beginnini^ 
with single sounds, and proceeding to easy words ;• and they 
should never be taught any pronunciation which they will after- 
wards be under the necessity of unlearning. The pleasure we 
feel at first hearing them aim at the use of language, is apt to 
dispose us to listen with such attention, as to relieve them from 
the necessity of acquiring a distinct and open articulation. The 
consequence is, that they get into a rapid, indistinct, and hesitating 
mode of speaking, which is afterwards very difficult, and some- 
times impossible to correct. Would we teach them a plain and 
distinct articulation, we should uniformly speak with distinctness 
and accuracy in their presence; and refuse to answer their re- 
quests, unless they arc expressed with the greatest precision and 
accuracy which their organs of articulation will permit. Atten- 
tion to this circumstance would smooth the way to accurate and 
early reading, and prevent much trouble both to teacher and 
scholar, when the child commences a regular train of instruction. 
I have been induced to offer these few hints on this subject, 
f^om a strong conviction, that the physical education of children 
is intimately connected with the development of mind — and that 
whatever tends to promote health, and to strengthen the animal 
frame, will also tend to invigorate the soul, and call forth into 
exercise its energies and powers. 

2. On the Moral Instruction of Infants. 

This is a subject of peculiar importance, to which the attention 
of every parent ought to be early and thoroughly directed. No 
iuties are generally more trifled with than those which relate to 
the moral tuition of infants ; and even sensible and pious parents 
too frequently err on this point, and lay the foundation of many 
bitter regrets and perplexities in after life, both to themselves and 
to their ofl^spring. On the mode in which a child is trained, dur- 
ing the two or three first years of its existence, will, in a great 
measure, depend the comfort of its parents, and its own happi- 
ness during the succeeding periods of its existence. 

The first and most important rule on this subject, and which 
may be considered as the foundation of all the rest, is — that an 
absolute and entire authority over the child, should, as early as 
possible, be established. By authority I mean, a certain air and 
ascendant, or such a mode of conducting ourselves towards chil- 
dren, as shall infallibly secure obedience. This authority is to be 

8 



86 MORAL INSTRUCTION OP INFANTS. 

obtained neither by age nor stature — by the tone of the voice, nor 
by threatening language ; but by an even, firm, moderate disposi- 
tion of mind — which is always master of itself — which is guided 
only by reason — and never acts under the impulse of mere fancy 
or angry passions. If we wish such authority to be absolute and 
complete — and nothing short ^of this ought to be our aim — we 
must endeavour to acquire this ascendancy over the young at a 
very early period of their lives. Children at a very early age 
are capable of reasoning, of comparing different objects with 
each other, and of drawing conclusions from them. I have seen 
a child of eight months turn round and point at a portrait, when 
the name of the individual whom it represented was announced ; 
and another, not much older, point first to the original and then 
to the painting, indicating its perception of the resemblance of the 
one to the other.* And as the rational and perceptive powers soon 
begin to operate, so vve find that stubbornness, obstinacy, anger, 
and a spirit of independence, display themselves at a very early 
period, even when the child is sucking its mother's breast. " What 
mean those cries, (says Augustine,) those tears, the threatening 
gesture of the eyes, sparkling with rage, in an infant, when 
resolved to gain his point with all his force, or inflamed with 
jealousy against one another? Though its infantine members 
are weak and imbecile, its passions are sometimes strong and 
furious. I have seen a child burning with jealousy. He could 
not yet utter a word, but, with a pale countenance, could cast a 
furious look at another child who was sucking with him at the 
same breast." 

These circumstances clearly point out the period for subduing 
the bad inclinations of children, and training them to submission 
and obedience. From the age of ten or twelve months, and 
earlier if possible, every parent ought to commence the estab- 
lishment of authority over his children ; for the longer it is de- 
layed after this period, the more difficult it will be to bring them 
under complete control. This authority is to be acquired — not 
by passionately chiding and beating children at an early age — 
but by accustoming them to perceive that ovr will mvst always 
prevail over theirs, and in no instance allowing them to gain an 
ascendancy, or to counteract a command when it has once been 
given. Dr. Witherspoon recommends the following plan to ac- 
custom children to obedience: — "As soon as they begin to show 
their inclination by desire or aversion, let single instances be 
chosen, now and then, (not too frequently,) to contradict them. 
For example, if a child shows a desire to have any thing in his 
hand that he sees, or has anv thin<T in his hand with which he is 



' AUTHORITY OVER CHILDREN. 87 

delighted, let the parent take it from him ; and when he does so, 
let no consideration whatever make him restore it at that time. 
Then, at a considerable interval, perhaps a whole day is little 
enough, let the same thing be repeated. In the meantime, it 
must be carefully observed, that no attempt should be made to 
contradict the child in the intervals. Not the least appearance 
of opposition, if possible, should be found between the will of 
the parent and that of the child, except in those chosen cases 
when the parent must always prevail. Neither mother nor nurse 
should ever presume to condole with the child, or show any signs 
of displeasure at his being crossed ; but, on the contrary, give 
every mark of approbation. This experiment, frequently re- 
peated, will in a little time so perfectly habituate the child to 
yield to the parent whenever he interferes, that he will make no 
opposition. I can assure you from experience, having literally 
practised this method myself, that I never had a child of twelve 
months old but would suffer me to take any thing from him or 
her, without the least mark of anger or dissatisfaction, while they 
would not suffer any other to do so without the bitterest com- 
plaints." 

Such experiments, if properly conducted, would gradually pro- 
duce in children habits of obedience; but they require to be 
managed with judgment and prudence, and gradually extended 
from one thing to another, till absolute submission is produced ; 
care, however, being taken that the child be not unnecessarily 
contradicted or irritated. The Rev. Mr. Cecil, in some of his 
writings, relates an experiment of this kind which he tried on his 
own daughter, a little girl of about three or four years old. She 
was standing one day before the fire, amusing herself with a string 
of beads, with which she appeared to be highly delighted. Her 
father approached her, and said, " What is this you are playing 
\||^ilh, my little dear? " My beads, papa." " Show me these beads, 
my dear." She at once handed them to her father, who imme- 
diately threv/ them into the fire. " Now," said he, " let them re- 
main there." She immediately began to cry. " You must not 
cry, my dear, but be quite contented." She then sat down on the 
fioor, and amused herself with some other toys. About two or 
three days after this, he purchased another string of beads much 
more valuable and brilliant, which he immediately presented to 
her. She was much delighted with the appearance of the new set 
of beads. '• Now," said her father, "i make a present of these to 
you, because you was a good girl, and gave me your beads when 
i asked them." She felt, in this case, that obedience and sub- 
mission to her parent v.'ere attended with happy eflects and would 



88 AUTHORITY OVER CHILDREN. 

be disposed, in her future conduct, to rely on his wisdom and 
affection.* Children trained in this way, with firmness and affec- 
tion, soon become happy in themselves, and a comfort to their 
parents ; and those scoldings, contentions, and sounds of discord, 
so frequently heard in the family mansion, entirely prevented. 

In order to establish complete authority, and secure obedience, 
the following rule must be invariably acted upon — that no com- 
mand^ either by word, look, or gesture, should be given, lohich 
is not intended to be enforced and obeyed. It is the rock on 
which most parents split, in infantile education, that, while they 
are almost incessantly giving commands to their children, they 
are not careful to see that they are punctually obeyed ; and seem 
to consider the occasional violation of their injunctions, as a very 
trivial fault, or as a matter of course. There is no practice more 
common than this, and none more ruinous to the authority of pa- 
rents, and to the best interests of their offspring. When a child is 
accustomed, by frequent repetitions, to counteract the will of his 
parent, a habit of insubordination is gradually induced, which 
sometimes grows to such a height, that neither entreaties, nor 
threats, nor corporal punishment, are sufficient to counteract its 
tende^-* ies ; and a sure foundation is laid for many future per- 
plexities and sorrows. The rule, therefore, should be absolute — 
that every parental command ought to be enforced. And, in order 
to this, it is requisite that every command be reasonable — that a 
compliance with it produce no unnecessary pain or trouble to the 
child — that it be expressed in the words of kindness and affec- 
tion — and that it ought never to be delivered in a spirit of pas- 
S7.on or resentment. Reproof or correction given in a rage, and 
with words of fury, is always considered as the effect of weak- 
ness and of the want of self-command, and uniformly frustrates 
the purpose it was intended to subserve. " I have heard," says 
Dr. Witherspoon, " some persons often say, that they cannot cor- 
rect their children unless they are angry ; to whom I have usually 
answered, 'Then you ought not to correct them at all.' Every 
one would be sensible, that for a magistrate to discover an intem- 
perate rage in pronouncing sentence against a criminal, would be 
highly indecent ; and ought not parents to punish their children 
in the same dispassionate manner?" 

One of the greatest obstacles in the way of acquiring complete 
authority, is the want of fortitude and perseverance, especially on 

* This relation is not taken directly from Mr. Cecil's writings. If I 
recollect right, it was intended to iUustrate the nature of faith ; but it may 
likewise exemplify tlie benefits wliich flow from unreserved obedience to the 
commands of an affectionate parent. 



IMPORTANCE OF ACaUIRING AUTHORITY. 89 

the part of the mother. She is sometimes oppressed with anxie- 
ties and difficulties, busied with domestic affairs, or perhaps has a 
young infant at the breast that requires her chief attention, or 
strangers may have paid a visit to the family. Her older child 
becomes restless and fretful, and runs through the dwelling, dis- 
turbing every one with his cries. She tries to coax him with flat- 
tering promises ; but it is of no avail. He is perhaps crying for 
something v/hich she does not think proper to give. She at length 
scolds and threatens, and attempts to strike, which generally 
makes the child redouble his cries. Wearied out, at length, with 
his cries and tears, and anxious to attend to some necessary 
atTairs, she allows herself to be vanquished, and submits to his 
desires. Sugar, jellies, or plumcakes, are supplied to pamper his 
depraved appetite, and put an end to his crying ; and, being ex- 
hausted with screaming, in a short time he drops asleep. The 
same process is repeated, when similar circumstances occur. 
Now, it is admitted that there is a difficulty in such cases ; but it 
is a difficulty which must be overcome, if we would not become 
slaves to our children, and render them disobedient and unhappy 
through life. Were a mother, for a ^q\w days, or weeks at most, 
to make a strong effort, and to sacrifice for a little her ow J-ease, 
and even some urgent business, and never flinch from the object 
till complete submission be accomplished, she would soon gain the 
requisite ascendancy ; and, having acquired it, it would save her 
from a multitude of troubles and perplexities, which must other- 
wise be felt during succeeding years — prevent the necessity of 
scolding, threatening, and whipping — and lay a sure foundation 
for domestic harmony and filial affection. But the longer she de- 
lays, the more difficult it will be to acquire the requisite ascend- 
ancy ; and the mother who trifles with this important duty, from 
day to day, lays the foundation of many bitter regrets and self- 
reproaches — renders her children curses instead of blessings 

and will, sooner or later, feel the effects of her misconduct, and 
behold her sin in her punishment. 

The violation of parental authority, especially among the 
children of the lower ranks, is so common, that it ceases to ex- 
cite wonder or surprise. One can scarcely walk the streets with- 
out seeing parental authority disregarded. A father is beheld 
with a whip or a stick in his hand, driving home his stubborn 
son, as if he were " a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke" — and 
a mother running after her child, with looks of fury and words 
of execration, seizing him by the shoulders, beating him with 
her fists, and dragging him along like a piece of lumber, while 
the Httle urchin is resisting with all his might, and bf^llowinof 

8* 



90 ILLUSTRATIONS OF INFANT TRAINING. 

like an ox. A short time ago, I was passing along the suburb 
of a large town, when I beheld a child of about three years old 
amusing himself on the footpath before his dwelling. His mother 
approached the threshold, and called him in. " Come awa', 
Jamie, to the house, it 's a cauld day." Jamie paid no attention 
to the command, but moved with the utmost deliberation to a 
greater distance. . " Come awa'," says his mother a second time, 
" and I '11 gie ye some good thing." James, however, marched 
on to a still greater distance. " Come back, Jamie," rejoined 
the mother, "and I '11 gie ye an apple." James paused for a mo- 
ment, and looked back with a kind of leer ; but, recollecting, 
perhaps, that his mother had often promised, and failed in per- 
forming her promises, he set off with more speed than before. 
His mother now became tociferous, and bawled out, " Come 
back, you little villain, or I '11 whip you, as sure 's I'm alive." 
James, however, who appeared to have known his mother better 
than she knew herself, still marched on. The foolish mother 
now became furious, rushed after the child, and dragged him 
home like a squeaking pig, lamenting that her children were so 
stubborn and disobedient ; and forgetting, in the meantime, that 
she herself was their instructor, and the cause of their obstinacy 
and disobedience. Children brought up in this manner are not 
only unhappy in themselves, but not unfrequently become pests 
in society, and particularly to the public instructors of youth, who 
find it extremely difficult, and sometimes next to impossible, to 
bring them under control and subordination to scholastic order 
and discipline — without which their progress in learning cannot 
be promoted. 

Some children, even in the same family, are pliant and of ten- 
der feelings, and are easily brought under subjection by a judi- 
cious parent; while others are naturally proud, self-willed and 
obstinate. But even in the worst supposable cases, it is quite 
practicable, by firmness and prudent management, to bring the 
most stubborn under subjection. This may be illustrated from 
the following fact, extracted from an excellent little work, entitled 
*' The Mother at Home, or the Principles of Maternal Duty fa- 
miliarly Illustrated ; by the Rev. John S. C. Abbot, of Worces- 
ter, America."* — " A gentleman, a few years since, sitting by 

* While I was writing the preceding paragraphs, this interesting little 
volume was put into my hands, — a volume which I would strongln recom- 
mend to the perusal of every parent. Its style is simple and perspicuous, 
its sentiments rational and pious, and are uniformly illustrated with a vari- 
ety of appropriate examples taken from real life — so that the most ignorant 
and illiterate may easily enter into all the views and representations of the 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF INFANT TRAINING. 91 

his fireside one evening, with his family around him, took the 
spelling-book, and called upon one of his little sons to come and 
read. John was about four years old. He knew all the letters 
of the alphabet perfectly, but happened at that moment to be 
rather in a sullen humour, and was not at all disposed to gratify 
his father. Very reluctantly he came as he was bid ; but when 
his father pointed to the first letter of the alphabet, and said, 
' What letter is that, John V he could get no answer. John looked 
upon the book, sulky and silent. ' My son,' said the father plea- 
santly, 'you know the letter A.' 'I cannot say A,' said John. 
* You must,' said the father in a serious and decided tone ; ' what 
letter is that?' John refused to answer. The contest was now 
fairly commenced. John was wilful, and determined that he 
would not read. His father knew that it would be ruinous to his 
son to allow him to conquer ; he felt that he must at all hazards 
subdue him. He took him into another room, and punished him. 
He then returned, and again showed John the letter; but John 
still refused to name it. The father again retired with his son, 
and punished him more severely. But it was unavailing. The 
stubborn child still refused to name the letter ; and when told 
that it was A, declared that he would not say A. Again the 
father inflicted punishment as severely as he dared to do it, and 
still the child, with his whole frame in agitation, refused to yield. 
The father was suffering with most intense solicitude. He regret- 
ted exceedingly that he had been drawn into the contest. He had 
already punished his child with a severity which he feared to ex- 
ceed ; and yet the wilful sufferer stood before him, sobbing and 
trembling, but apparently as unyielding as a rock. I have often 
heard that parent mention the acuteness of his feelings at that 
moment ; his heart was bleeding at the pain which he had been 
compelled to inflict upon his son. He knew that the question was 
now to be settled, who should be master ; and after his son had 
withstood so long and so much, he greatly feared the result. 

author, and feel their propriety and force. Were the principles inculcated 
in this small volume xiniversaily recognised and acted upon, the aspect of 
the moral world would, ere long, undergo an important change, and a new 
generation would soon spring up, to renovate the world, and to hail the 
commencent of the millennial era. The amiable author himself appears to 
be an affectionate and " Grateful So7i ;" for, instead of attempting to curry 
favour with the great, by dedicating his work to the Earl of F. the Duchess 
of G. or the President of the United States, he very appropriately dedicates 
it to his " Father mid J]fother" of whom he speaks with affectionate re- 
gard. The volume is very neatly got up, contains above 140 pages, pretty 
closely printed, and is sold, neatly bound, for only one shilling ; so that it 
is within the reach of the poorest family. 



92 IMPORTANCE OF ADHERENCE TO TRUTH. 

The mother sat by, suffering of course most acutely, but per- 
fectly satisfied that it was their duty to subdue the child, and 
that, in such a trying hour, a mother's feelings must not inter- 
fere. Wiih a heavy heart, tlie father again took the hand of 
his son, to lead him out of the room for further punishment; but, 
to his inconceivable joy, the child shrunk from enduring any 
more suffering, and cried, 'Father, I'll tell the letter.' The 
father, with feelings not easily conceived, took the book and 
pointed to the letter. 'A,' said John, distinctly and fully. 'And 
what is that?' said the father, pointing to the next letter. 'B,' 
said John. ' And v/hat is that?' ' C,' he continued. 'And what 
is that?' pointing again to the first letter. 'A,' said the now 
humbled child. ' No'W^'carry the book to your mother, and tell 
her what the letter is.' ' What letter is that, my son?' said his 
mother. ' A,' said Tohn. He was evidently perfectly subdued. 
The rest of the children were sitting by, and they saw the con- 
test, and they saw where was the victory ; and John learned a 
lesson which he never forgot : he learned never again to wage 
such an unequal warfare — he learned that it was the safest and 
happiest course for him to obey." 

The conduct of the parent, in this case, so far from being 
branded with harshness or cruelty, was the dictate of mercy and 
love. Had the son been permitted to obtain the mastery, it might 
not only have proved his ruin through life, but have introduced a 
spirit of insubordination among the other branches of the family. 
The only fault which, perhaps, may be attributed to the father, in 
the present instance, was his insisting on his son pointing out the 
letters when he happened to be in a " sullen humour.'''' But, after 
the contest was commenced, it was indispensable to the happiness 
and order of the family, that victory should be obtained on the 
part of the parent. And this circumstance suggests the following 
rule, — that. When children happen to he in a fretful or sulky 
humour^ any disagreeable command or injunction that is not in- 
dispensable, ought to he avoided ; for it is best to prevent colli- 
sions of this kind, at a time when children are disposed to " sum- 
mon up all their energies to disobey." 

Another important maxim in infantile instruction is, that 
nothing he told or represented to children hut what is strictly 
accordant with truth. This maxim is violated in thousands of 
instances by mothers and nurses, to the manifest injury of the 
moral principles and the intellectual powers of the young. The 
system of nature is frequently misrepresented, and even carica- 
tured, when its objects are pointed out to children ; qualities are 
ascribed to them which they do liot possess ; their real properties 



TRUTH IN DELINEATIONS FOR THE YOUNG. 93 

are concealed, and even imaginary invisible. beings, which have 
no existence in the universe, are attempted to be exhibited to their 
imao;ination. The moon is sometimes represented as within reach 
of the child's grasp, when he is" anxiously desired to take hold of 
it ; a table or a chair is represented as an animated being, when 
he is desired to strike it in revenge, after having knocked his head 
against it ; a dog or a cat is represented as devoid of feeling, 
when he is encouraged to beat or whip these animals for bis 
amusement ; certain animated beings are represented as ajiuisance 
in creation, when a boy is permitted to tear asunder the legs and 
wings of flies, or directed to crush to death every worm or beetle 
that comes in his way ; and the shades of night are exhibited as 
peopled with spectres, when a child is threatened with a visit of 
a frightful hobgoblin from a dark apartment. In these and similar 
instances, not only is the understanding bewildered and perverted, 
but the moral powers are corrupted ; — falsehood, deceit, a re- 
vengeful disposition, cruelty towards the lower animals, super- 
stitious opinions and vain alarms, are indirectly fostered in the 
youthful mind. Even the pictorial representations which are ex- 
hibited to children in their toy-books, too frequently partake of 
this character. The sun and moon are represented with human 
faces, as if they were small and insignificant objects, and partook 
of the nature of animated beings. Peacocks and cranes, foxes 
and squirrels, cats and mice, are represented in the attitude of 
speaking and of holding conversation with each other, as if they 
were rational beings endowed with the faculty of speech. A 
monkey is represented as riding on a sow, and an old woman, 
mounted on a broom, as directing her course through the air to 
the moon. Even when real objects are intended to be depicted, 
such as a horse, an elephant, or a lion, they are often surrounded 
and interwoven with other extraneous objects, so that the principal 
figure intended to be exhibited can scarcely be distinguished. 
Hence, most of our books intended for the nursery, convey little 
else than vague and distorted views of the objects of nature and 
the scenes of human life, and are nothing short of trifling with 
the ideas that ought to be distinctly exhibited to the infant mind.* 



* A considerable degree of knowledge may be communicated to the 
young by means of pictorial exhibitions ; but in order to this, they must be 
of a different description from what is found in most of our school-books 
and publications intended for the nursery. Instead of caricatures, and in- 
distinct groups of o])iects unnaturally huddled together, every object ought 
to be neatly, vividly, and accurately engraved, and the principal figures 
well defined and detached from mere adventitious accompaniments ; and, 
if possible, coloured after nature. The best little books and figures qf this 



94 FALSE ASSERTIONS AND DECEITFUL PROMISES. 

If children were permitted to imbibe no ideas but what are true, 
or accordant with the existing scenes of nature, their progress in 
useful information would be rapid and sure, and its acquisition 
easy and pleasant. But, as matters now stand, one of the most 
difficult parts of education consists in covnteracting the immoral 
prtnciples and erroneous ideas which have been impressed upon 
the mind in early life — which, in many cases, requires arduous 
and loniT-continued efforts. 

It has a still more pernicious effect on the moral principles of 
the young, when false assertions and representations are made to 
them in reference to facts and circumstances of a moral nature. 
How common is it, for example, for a mother to cajole a child 
into obedience by promising him an article or a gratuity which 
she has no intention of bestowing, or which, perhaps, it is out of • 
her power to bestow ! She is about to take a walk, or to pay a 
visit, and little Tom wishes to go along with her. This proposal 
his mother thinks proper to refuse. Tom begins a crying, and 
attempts to assail his mother by his tears. She tries to cajole 
him, by telling him she will bring home to him apples and 
oranges, a little coach and four, a fiddle, a drum, or a fine new 
jacket. Little Tom, perhaps, is somewhat appeased by such 
flattering promises. His mother leaves home, pays her visit and 
returns, but forgets her promises, as she never intended to fulfil 
them. The same thing is frequently repeated, till at length the 
child learns that no dependence is to be placed on the word of 
his parent. There can scarcely be a more direct way than this 
of training children to prevarication and falsehood, and exciting 
them to view with contempt their parents and guardians. — Such 
deceptions are very commonly attempted, when children are 
urged to take nauseous medicines for the recovery of their health. 
The loathsome drug is represented as pleasant, or in nowise un- 
palatable, till the child tastes it, and finding it offensive to his 
palate, spits it out, and absolutely refuses to take any more of 
the draught — while, at the same time, he clearly perceives that 
he has been deceived. Mr. Abbot relates the following story, 
illustrative of this point: — "A mother vvas once trying to per- 
suade her little son to take some medicine. The medicine was 
very unpalatable ; and she, to induce him to take it, declared 
it did not taste bad. He did not believe her. He knew, by sad 

description I have seen, are most of those published by Darton and Harvey, 
London, entitled " Instructive Hints," " The prize for Good Chiklren," 
''Little Truths for the Instruction of Children," «Slc. &c. in which the 
Bcenes of human life are neatly and accurately exhibited, and accompanied 
with many instructive lessons adapted to the capacities of youth. 



DANGER OF FREaUENTLY FINDING FAULT. 95 

experience, that her word was not to be trusted. A gentleman 
and a friend who was present took the spoon and said, ' James, 
this is medicine, and it tastes badly. I should not like to take it, 
but I would, if necessary. You have courage enough to swallow 
something which does not taste good, have you not?' 'Yes,' said 
James, looking a little less sulky, ' but that is very bad indeed.' 
' I know it,' said the gentleman, ' I presume you never tasted any 
thing much worse.' The gentleman then tasted of the medicine 
himself, and said, ' It is very unpleasant. But now let us see if 
you have not resolution enough to take it, bad as it is.' The boy 
hesitatingly took the spoon. ' It is bad,' said the gentleman, ' but 
the best way is to summon all your resolution, and down with it 
at once, like a man.' James made, in reality, a great effort for 
a child, and swallowed the dose. And whom will this child most 
respect, his deceitful mother, or the honest-dealing stranger 1 
And whom will he hereafter most readily believe? It ought, how- 
ever, to be remarked, that, had the child been properly governed, 
he would, at once, and without a murmur, have taken what his 
mother presented." 

Hence the following practical rules may be deduced : — Never 
attempt in any instance to deceive the young. How can a pa- 
rent, with any consistency or hope of success, inculcate upon a 
child, that 'it is wicked to tell a falsehood,' when the child per- 
ceives his parent setting before him, in his own conduct, an ex- 
ample of this vice? Such conduct necessarily leads a child to dis- 
trust his parents, to despise them in his heart, and to practise 
himself the same arts of deception. — Never maTce a promise to a 
child which is not intended to be punctually performed ; — and 
— Never threaten a punishment which is not intended to be in- 
ficted. Children have better memories in regard to these things 
than what we are apt to suspect, and they draw their conclusions, 
and act accordingly. A proper consideration of these things will 
point out the propriety of being very cautious and circumspect as 
to what we promise and what we threaten in respect to the young, 
— if we sincerely wish them to respect truth, and be submissive 
to their superiors and instructors. 

Another rule to be attended to in infant education, is, that — we 
should beware of indulging the habit of incessantly finding fault 
with children. The same principles and feelings which operate 
on adult minds are generally found to affect, in a similar manner, 
the minds of the young. When a man is continually found fault 
with, in every operation he performs, — when his most minute de- 
viations from accuracy are censured and exaggerated, and his 
prominent excellencies; overlooked^ and refused their due meed of 



96 INFRINGEMENT OF NATURAL LAWS. 

praise, he becomes disheartened in his pursuits, and feels little 
stimulus to improvement ; whereas, the bestowment of deserved 
approbation animates the mind, and excites to more assiduous ex- 
ertions. In like manner, children are discouraged in their aims to 
please their parents and guardians, when fault is found with almost 
every thing they do ; but there is nothing that lends more to cheer 
and animate the mind of a child, and to produce a desire of pleas- 
ing his parents, than the hope of receiving the due reward of his 
attentions, and the smile and approbation of those whom he is 
taught to love and obey. Many little irregularities in the conduct 
of children, if they be not directly vicious, or acts of disobedience, 
must be overlooked ; or if they are reproved, it should be as sel- 
dom as possible, and with gentleness and ajfTection. We should 
always be more ready to express approbation, and to reward good 
conduct, than to chide and frown at every trivial fault that may 
be committed through thoughtlessness and inaUention. And it is 
surely more delightful to the heart of an affectionate parent to 
have his children excited to good conduct from the desire of pleas- 
ing and the hope of reward, than merely from a fear of offending. 
But when children are almost incessantly scolded — when, after 
endeavouring to do the best they can, they are told that they never 
do any thing right — that they are stupid asses — that they will 
never be made to learn — that they are continually giving us trou- 
ble and vexation — that they are like no other children, and that 
we will give over attempting to teach them, — such disheartening 
remonstrances, when daily repeated, tend to chill the susceptible 
hearts of the young, to sour their dispositions, and to render them 
indifTerent to making improvement either in knowledge or virtue. 
On the other hand, nothing tends more to promote filial affection, 
cheerful obedience, a spirit of improvement, and to cherish the 
best feelings of the human heart, than the prospect of well-merited 
approbation, and the hope of reward. 

Every child should be made to see and feel the natural con- 
sequences of his conduct, whether good or had : — and the pun- 
ishments and rewards he receives should be of such a nature as 
to make him perceive the unhappy tendency of thoughtless and 
obstinate tempers, and the happiness which invariably results from 
obedient submission, and the exercise of amiable dispositions. 
There are certain natural and moral laws which cannot be 
infringed by any one without his feeling the consequences of their 
violation ; and this holds true in the case of children, as well as 
in that of adults. When a child rushes heedlessly into a room, 
without looking before him, he is almost certain of getting a fall, 
or knocking his head against a table. When he climbs on the 



VANITY SHOULD BE COUNTERACTED. 97 

back of a chair, when he approaches too near the grate, amuses 
himself with a firebrand, or handles, without caution, knives and 
forks — he is certain, sooner or later, by various pains and acci- 
dents, to feel the consequences of his conduct ; and in such cases 
he should be made distinctly to perceive tiie connection between 
his fault and his punishment. 

But, in the next place, although we should beware of con- 
stantly finding fault with children, we must carefully guard 
against every thing that might excite them to vanity and self- 
conceit. We encourage such vicious propensities, when we expa- 
tiate on their good qualities to visitors, and praise them for the 
excellent things they have said or done, while they themselves 
are standing by^ and eagerly listening to the conversation. At 
such times we are apt to forget, that they are paying strict atten- 
tion to every thing that is said, and drinking in with pleasure the 
flattering expressions bestowed upon them. One should never 
speak in the presence of children about any thing which he does 
not wish them to know, if they are above fifteen or twenty months 
old. It is amazing how soon children become acquainted with 
the meaning of language, even before they are capable of express- 
ing their ideas in words, or entering upon a regular conversation. 
" A Httle child," says Mr. Abbot, " creeping upon the floor, and 
who could not articulate a single word, was requested to carry a 
piece of paper across the room, and put it in a chair. The child 
perfectly comprehended the direction, and crept across the room, 
and did as he was told. An experiment or two of this kind will 
satisfy any one how far a child's mind is in advance of his power 
to express his ideas ; and yet when a child is three or four years 
old, parents will relate in their presence shrewd things which 
they have said and done, and sometimes even their acts of diso- 
bedience will be mentioned with a smile !" — Another circumstance 
by which pride and self-conceit are excited in the breasts of the 
young, is, the conduct of parents in exhibiting the acquirements 
of their children to strangers, and to almost every visitor that 
happens to call. Little Ann has been taught to repeat by rote a 
few verses of a Psalm or Hymn, and Andrew, a little more 
advanced in years, has learned Se'mpronius' " Speech for War," 
or a piece of an old play. Although they know nothing of the 
meaning of the pieces they have committed to memory, and can- 
not, perhaps, annex a single idea to the words they pronounce, 
yet their mamma is so enraptured with their attainments, that 
when any visitors happen to call, or a party is assembled, she 
introduces them to the company, and encourages them to spout 
in their presence, sometimes to their no small disgust and annoy- 

9 



98 DANGER OF FRIGHTENING CHILDREN. 

ance. Of course, every one pats them on the head, and praises 
them for the exhibition they have made, while they eagerly catch 
the words of approbation, to nurse their latent vanity and self- 
conceit. Such exhibitions, when frequently repeated, cannot but 
have an injurious effect on the youthful mind. Pride and self- 
conceit, however common in society, are so odious, and so incon- 
sistent with the character and circumstances of man, that instead 
of fostering such unamiable principles, every exertion should be 
made to check their growth, and counteract their influence. And 
modesty and humility are so amiable, and so congenial to beings 
so ignorant and depraved as man, — who is but an atom in crea- 
tion, and stands near the lowest point of the scale of intellectual 
existence — that every thing ought to be carefully guarded against 
that would prevent their culture, and every mean used which has 
a tendency to cherish and promote them. I do not mean to 
insinuate, that it is improper, in every instance, to exhibit the 
attainments of children; but it should be done with judgment and 
caution, so that it may produce no immoral effects, or be the 
means of adding to the impudence and self-conceit which too 
much abound in the world. The practice of teaching children to 
repeat, like parrots, what they do not understand, ought to be 
entirely discarded. The best exhibition of a child's attainments 
would be, to make him read a passage from any of his toy-books, 
and give the meaning of the words, and an account of the facts 
or sentiments it contains. 

To the rules on this subject, already stated, may be adde^ the 
following : — Never attempt to frighten children to their duty by 
presenting to their fancy terrific objects, and exciting imaginary 
alarms. This rule is violated, when frightful hobgoblins are re- 
presented as having been seen in darkness, and during night, and 
when foolish tales of fairies, witches, and apparitions, are gravely 
related to children. And, when their minds are thus stuffed with 
confused ideas of imaginary objects, they are afterwards frighten- 
ed into obedience by the terror of some of these visionary beings 
suddenly making their appearance. Darkness is thus associated 
with terrific phantoms, and children are sometimes thrust into 
dark and narrow rooms, to make them cease their crying, or to 
frighten them into obedience. It is not uncommon to bear 
nurses, and even foolish mothers, threatening to send for the 
" black man,''"' with cloven feet, and horns on his head — to cut off 
their children's heads, to toss them out of a window, or to send 
tliem to the black-hole. Such a mode of frightening children 
into obedience, not only lays the foundation of superstitious no- 
tions, and renders them afterwards cowards in the dark, but is 



HARMONY OF PARENTS. 99 

sometimes attended with the most tragical efTccts. An English 
writer, says Mr. Abbot, gives an account of two instances in 
which fatal consequences attended the strong excitement of fear. 
He says, " I knew in Philadelphia a child, as fine and as spright- 
ly, and as intelligent a child, as ever was born, made an idiot for 
life, by being, when about three years old, shut into a dark closet 
by a maid-servant, in order to terrify it into silence. The 
thoughtless creature first menaced it with sending it ' to the bad 
place,' as the phrase is ; and at last, to reduce it to silence, put 
it into the closet, shut the door, and went out of the room. She 
went back in a few minutes, and found the child in a fit. It re- 
covered from that, but was for life an idiot." — It is not long since 
we read in the newspapers of a child being killed by being thus 
frightened. The parents had gone out to what is called an even- 
ing party. The servants had their party at home, and the «nis- 
tress, who, by some unexpected accident, had been brought home 
at an early hour, finding the parlour full of company, ran up 
stairs to see her child, who was about two or three years old. 
She found it with its eyes open, but fixed ; touching it, she found 
it inanimate. The doctor was sent for in vain ; it was quite dead. 
The maid affected to know nothing of the cause ; but some one 
of the persons assembled discovered, pinned up to the curtains 
of the bed, a horrid figure, made up partly of a frightful mask ! 
This, as the wretched girl confessed, had been done to keep the 
child quiet, while she was with her company below." It is sure- 
ly unnecessary to add more, in order to deter parents and ser- 
vants from practices fraught with such dangerous and appalling 
consequences. Let children be inspired both with physical and 
moral courao^e. Let them be taught, that there is nothing more 
frightful in the dark than in the light of day, except the danger 
of knocking against any object we do not perceive. Let them 
be accustomed, at times, to be in the dark, both in company and 
alone, in the house, and in the open air, when there is no danger 
of meeting with accidents. Let them be taught, above all things, 
to love God and fear him ; and that they need not be greatly 
alarmed at whatever may befall them from any other quarter. 

In practising the rules now laid down, and in every branch of 
domestic education, it is a matter of the first importance, that 
fathers and mothers, nurses and servants, should act in harmony 
in the commands and instructions given to children. When a 
foolish mother, from a mistaken affection, indulges her children 
in their vicious humours and impertinent whims, and is careless 
whether or not parental authority be respected — it is next to im- 
possible for a father, however judicious his plans, to maintain 



100 INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 

domestic order and authority, and to " train up his children in 
the way they should go." The altercations which not unfrequent- 
ly happen between parents, as to the mode of managing their off- 
spring, and that, too, in the presence of their children, subvert 
the very foundations of family government, and endanger the 
best interests of those whom they -profess to hold dear. Little 
John has, perhaps, been for some time in a sulky humour ; he 
has struck his sister, torn her frock, and tossed her doll into the 
fire, and obstinately refused to comply with some parental com- 
mands. His father wishes to correct him for his conduct, which 
his mother endeavours to prevent. Punishment, however, is in- 
flicted corresponding to the crime ; but the silly mother, instead 
of going hand in hand with her husband in maintaining family 
order, — exclaims against the severity of the correction, and, 
taking the child in her arms, caresses him, and condoles with 
him on account of the pain he has suffered — plainly indicating to 
the child that his father had acted towards him with cruelty and 
injustice. Wherever such conduct frequently recurs, domestic 
order is overthrown, the moral principles of the young corrupt- 
ed, deceit and hypocrisy cherished, filial affection undermined, 
and a sure foundation laid for many future perplexities and sor- 
rows. However much parents may differ in opinion about certain 
principles, or modes of conducting family affairs, it' ought never 
to be displayed in the presence of their children : and, for the 
same reason, parents ought never to speak disrespectfully of any 
teacher they employ, while their children are listening to their 
remarks, whatever may be the private opinion they entertain re- 
specting his qualifications or conduct. 

3. On the Intellectual Instruction of Infants. 

In regard to the intellectual instruction of infants, I have al- 
ready thrown out a few cursory remarks, and shall afterwards 
illustrate more particularly a few principles applicable to this sub- 
ject. In the meantime, the following brief hints may suffice. — 
As the senses are the primary inlets of all knowledge — every 
object, within view, in the system of nature, which has a t-^nden- 
cy to convey a new idea, should be distinctly presented to the 
eyes of a child. He should be taught to contemplate it for some 
time with steadiness and attention, and the sound or name by 
which it is distinguished frequently repeated to him. In order 
gradually to enlarge the sphere of his information, the objects 
more immediately aroimd him may, in the first instance, be 
separately and distinctly pointed out, uniformly accompanying 
the name with the exhibition of the object. He should next be 



INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 101 

occasionally led into the fields, and to the banks of a river, the 
margin of the ocean, and a seaport, if such places lie adjacent, 
and his attention directed to the most prominent objects connected 
with those scenes ; care being taken not to confuse his imagina- 
tion with too many objects at one time. Perhaps it may be suffi- 
cient to confine his attention to about three or four objects at a 
time — such as a house, a tree, a cow, and a horse. To these his 
attention should be particularly riveed, so that the idea of the ob- 
ject and its 7ia7ne may be inseparably connected, and indelibly 
impressed upon his mind. Afterwards, other objects, as a ship, a 
boat, a spire, a flower, the clouds, &c. may, in the same manner, 
be presented to his view, varying .the scene, and gradually pre- 
senting new objects to his attention. When he has thus acquired 
some knowledge of the most interesting objects which compose 
the scene around him, he may be desired to point out any par- 
ticular object when its name is mentioned. Supposing him in the 
fields, or on the banks of a river, let him be desired to point to a 
tree, a sheep, or a boat, if such objects are within view ; and by 
this means, he will become gradually familiarized with the 
scenery of nature, and the terms by which its various parts are 
distinguished. His attention may also be directed to the sky, not 
merely for the purpose of distinguishing its objects, but for tracing 
their motions. Let him be taken to a certain point, where he will 
observe the rising sun, and, on the evening of the same day, let 
him be broU'^ht to the same position to behold his setting, and let 
him be taught to mark the different direction in which he sets 
from that in which he arose; from which he will naturally con- 
clude, that motion of some kind or other has taken place. In like 
manner, about twilight, when the moon begins to appear, let him 
be directed, from a certain station, to mark her position in the 
heavens with respect to certain objects on the earth over which 
she appears, and before going to bed, let her be viewed from the 
same station, and the different positions in which she then ap- 
pears pointed out. Such observations will pave the way for 
more particular instructions on such subjects, as he advances in 
years. 

In the same manner, artificial objects of various descriptions, 
as windmills, tables, sofas, candlesticks, hammers, scissors, 
organs, piano-fortes, clocks, watches, globes, telescopes, micro- 
scopes, &c. may be exhibited, and some of their uses explained. 
It might not be improper to give a child of two years old a lesson 
of this kind every day, — making it a rule to have, if possible, 
some new object to exhibit to him at every lesson, and occasional- 
ly recurring to the objects to which his attention was formerly 

9* 



102 INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 

directed, that they may become still more familiar to his mind.— 
In communicating to children the names of the various objects of 
nature and art, all improper pronunciations and diminutives ought 
to be avoided — such as doggie^ cattie, horsie, chairie, instead 
of dog, cat, horse, chair. It should be considered as an important 
rule in infant education — that a child should never be taught 
any pronunciation, or any sentiment, opinion, or idea whatever, 
which he will afterwards he obliged to unlearn. Were this rule 
universally attended to, in connection with the hints novv^ suggest- 
ed, the path to knowledge would be rendered smooth and easy — 
every day would increase the ideas which tend to enlarge the 
capacity of the infant mind — the way for regular scholastic in- 
struction would be thoroughly prepared — as the youth advanced 
towards manhood, his knowledge and perceptions, if properly 
directed, would increase with his growing years — and, as no 
limits can be affixed to the expansion of the human mind, he may 
go on to increase his perceptions and intellectual enjoyments to 
an indefinite extent, not only during the fleeting periods of time, 
but throughout the ages of eternity. But, in the present state of 
infant-training, a very considerable portion of our scholastic in- 
structions must consist in counteracting the impressions which 
have been previously received. 

After various objects of nature and art have been presented to 
the view of a child, in conjunction with the names by which they 
are distinguished — their qualities should next be pointed out and 
illustrated. Objects are either animated or inanimated, vegetable 
or mineral, hot or cold, rough or smooth, hard or soft — black, 
blue, green, yellow or white — round, oval, square, triangular — 
high, low, long or short, &c. Several properties such as these 
can easily be illustrated to children by familiar examples. To 
convey an idea to a child that fire is hot, he may be presented 
with a piece of iron, and caused to feel it ; it may then be put 
into the fire till it become just as hot as a person may touch it 
without danger, and then desire the child to put his finger upon 
it, which will convince him of the nature of that property 'which 
resides in the fire — the epithet cold being applied in the firbt case, 
and hot, in the last. To illustrate the ideas of roughness and 
smoothness, he may be made to press his hand along an unhewn 
stone, and the top of a mahogany table. Seven small boards or 
pieces of card paper, painted with the seven primary colours of 
light, red, orange yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet — occa- 
sionally CAiiibited for his amusement, in connection with these 
terms, would soon teach him to distinguish the prominent colours 
of natural and artificial objects ; and, when he is led into the fields 



INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 103 

and gardens, he should be induced lo apply his knowledge of 
colours by naming the prominent colour of every flower or shrub 
that may be presented to him. The qualities hard and soft may 
be illustrated by making him press his finger upon a stone or a 
bar of iron, and upon a piece of clay or a lump of dough. The 
property of light in enabling us to discover the forms and colours 
of objects may be shown, by closing the window-shutters, or 
putting out a candle under night, and then desiring him to name 
the objects and colours he perceives ; — and the correspondence 
of the organ of vision to the rays of light may be impressed upon 
his mind by blindfolding him for a minute or two, — and accom- 
panying such exhibitions with appropriate remarks level to his 
comprehension. The figures of objects may be represented by 
pieces of wood or pasteboard cut into the shapes of squares, 
parallelograms, triangles, trapeziums, circles, ellipses or ovals, 
and other mathematical figures, which would gradually impress 
the names and characteristics of such figures upon his mind, and 
tend to facilitate his progress in the scholastic instructions that 
may be afterwards imparted. His idea of length, measure, or 
distance, may be rendered somewhat definite, by presenting to 
him pieces of wood of the length of an inch, a foot, a yard, and a 
pole, and causing him to notice how many lengths of the one is 
contained in that of the other ; and the idea of the specific gravi- 
ties of bodies may be impressed, by causing him to lift a weight of 
brass or cast iron, and another, of nearly the same size and shape, 
made of light wood. The sonorous qualities of bodies may be 
exhibited by making him strike a small hand-bell with a key or 
a piece of thick wire, and immediately afterwards, an egg-cup, 
or any small dish made of hard wood. The various odoriterous 
smells connected with the vegetable kingdom may be communicat- 
ed by presenting to his nostrils, in succession, a rose, a bunch of 
thyme, of balm, of peppermint and of southernwood. Such ex- 
periments and illustrations of the qualities of bodies may be varied 
and multiplied to an indefinite extent ; and as they form the 
foundation of all knowledge, and may be rendered subservient to 
the child's amusement, they ought not to be considered as un- 
worthy of our attention. 

Many useful ideas might likewise be communicated to infants 
by means of engravings ; especially in relation to objects which 
cannot be directly presented to their view. Foreign animals, 
such as the elephant, the Hon, the buffalo, the camelopard, the 
monkey, the dromedary and camel, may be in this way exhibited 
— and also domestic animals, as the cow, the horse, the ass, the 
dog, &c. — as children feel a considerable degree of pleasure in 



104 INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 

being able to trace the resemblance botween pictures and the ob- 
jects they have seen, when accurately represented in engravings. 
Foreign scenes, as towns, churches, bridges, mausoleums, tri- 
umphal arches, rural landscapes, mountains, volcanoes, cataracts, 
lakes and other objects, when accurately delineated, may likewise 
tend to expand the conceptions of children, and give them an idea 
of objects which their own country does not exhibit. Various 
objects of art, as ships, boats, windmills, towers, spires, light- 
houses, coaches, wagons, smiths' anvils, forges and hammers, 
weavers' looms, &c. may also be thus exhibited. One of the 
most pleasing and useful modes of exhibiting real objects by 
means of pictures, is that of viewing perspective prints of streets, 
towns, villages and rural landscapes, by means of the optical 
diagonal machine ; of which 1 shall, in the sequel, give a short 
description. In exhibiting objects to a child through the medium 
of engravings, it may be proper, in the Ifirst instance, to present 
to him only one object, well-defined and disconnected with every 
adventitious circumstance, as a ma.n^ a horse, a mountain, or a 
tree, so that he may acquire a correct and well-defined idea of 
the particular object exhibited. Afterwards, a landscape in which 
these and other objects are embodied may be laid before him, and 
he may be desired to point out the individual objects of which it 
is composed, when their names are mentioned. — It is almost 
needless to remark, that the pictures contained in most of our 
nursery and toy-books, are altogether unfitted for the exhibitions 
to which I allude. They are generally mere caricatures, and are 
little short of an insult to the young, both as to the objects they 
most frequently represent, and the manner in vv'hich they are re- 
presented. Engravings, calculated to convey instruction, should 
be on a moderately large scale — every part of the object repre- 
sented should be accurately delineated — no objects should be 
placed in awkward or unnatural positions — and they should, in 
most cases, be coloured after nature, care being taken that they 
be not daubed with fantastic or too glaring colours — a fault which 
attaches to most of our pictures intended for children. A series 
of engravings exhibiting all the prominent scenery and objects of 
nature and art, on a cheap plan, and properly classified and ar- 
ranged for the purpose now specified, is still a desideratum. 

While writing the above hints, I had an opportunity of trying 
the experiments now suggested, on a fine little boy, a friend of 
my own, about two years old. Little Tom was first presented 
with the plates of a book of Natural History, and desired to name 
the lion, the elephant, the camel, and about twenty or thirty other 
animals, when their figures were pointed out, which he did with- 



INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS. 105 

out the least hesitation. The plates were then put into his hand, 
and he was desired to turn up any particular animal when its 
name was mentioned, which he accomplished with considerable 
facility. A sheet, containing about sixty engravings of birds, 
quadrupeds, and fishes, where the different kinds of animals were 
grouped without any order — was next laid before him, when he 
was requested to point out a particular animal, when its name 
was given, which he also did, in almost every instance, after cast- 
ing his eye up and down, and across the engraving, and, when 
he had hit on the object, he pointed to it with exaltation, saying, 
" There's the lion — there's the goat — there's the dromedary," &c. 
The figure of a compound microscope was next exhibited, which 
he readily named ; and several hours afterwards, a microscope 
of the same construction as represented in the engraving, was 
placed before him, which he immediately recognized and named, 
and then turned up the engraving where its figure was delineated, 
marking the resemblance between the one and the other. The 
same experiments were made with a terrestrial globe, an orrery, 
a telescope, a clock, a watch, and various other objects. He was 
next desired to point to several articles in the apartment — the 
table, a chair, the tongs, the shovel, the poker, a map, a portrait 
of a friend whom he knew, and other objects, which he at once 
recognized and distinguished. Several engravings of landscapes 
were then presented to his inspection, when he was requested to 
point out the men, women, trees, ships, houses, &c. of which 
they were composed ; which he did with pleasure, and without 
hesitation, pointing his little finders to different parts of the scene, 
and saying, " There's a dog — there's a man — there's a house — 
there's a tree," &c. I next led him into the garden, and placed 
him in a proper situation for viewing the surrounding objects. I 
first asked him to point to a windrnill — there being one, and only 
one in view. He looked around for a few seconds, and, after 
fixing his eyes on the object, and pointing with his finger, ex- 
claimed M'ith pleasure, " There's windmill" — and, looking at it 
with steadiness for a few seconds, said with a kind of surprise, 
" No going round ;" which was actually the case, as there was no 
wind. He was next desired to point out a flower, a tree, a cow, 
a ship, and other objects, which he at once distinguished with the 
same facility. 

The desire of this little boy for the exhibition of new objects, 
especially as represented by pictures, was almost voracious. After 
spending several hours in succession, in exhibiting to him several 
hundreds of plates of different encyclopedias, and books of travels, 
he was still unsatisfied, called for more books, and seemed to for- 



106 INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION OP INFANTS. 

get both hunger and sleep. lie recollected, with considerable 
accuracy, tlio prominent objects that had been presented before 
him in these engravings ; and, therefore, when a volume contain- 
ing plates, whicli he had already seen, was again presented, he 
pushed it away, and requested another. Every morning, as soon 
as he was dressed, his. first request was, " See more pictures — 
you please ;" and, leading me into the room where the books 
werc^ kept, pointed to the particular volumes he wished to inspect. 
Even his cravings for breakfast seemed to be forgotten, amidst 
the delight with which he contemplated new exhibitions of nature 
and art. Tbe varieties of animated nature seemed to afford him 
the greatest degree of pleasure ; but every striking and well-de- 
fined object, of whatever description, which he had never seen 
before, particularly arrested his attention. The exhibition of 
perspective views, through the optical diagonal machine, where 
the objects appear nearly as they do in nature, afforded him a 
high degree of gratification, while he described, in his own way, 
the different parts of the scene. — These circumstances evidently 
demonstrate the innate principle of curiosity, or desire for know- 
ledge, implanted in the infant mind, which only requires to be ju- 
diciously regulated, and a series of interesting objects exhibited, in 
order to raise the human soul to the highest pitch of intellectual 
improvement. They also indicate the vast capacity of the mind 
for receiving an indefinite variety of ideas — the pleasure asso- 
ciated with their acquisition — and the boundless desires after new 
and varied scenes and enjoyments, which evidently point to a 
higher state of existence, where they will be fully gratified. 

In stating the above circumstances — which to some readers 
.may perhaps appear trifling — my intention is not to insinuate that 
the child alluded to is superior to others of the same age. Every 
child, whose physical and mental powers are in a sound state, is 
capable of making the same acquisitions, and feeling the same 
enjoyments; provided due care be taken to direct the principle of 
curiosity into a proper channel, and to supply it with proper 
objects. Some children, in consequence of their physical organ- 
ization, may have more vigour of intellect than others ; they may 
feel highly gratified with some objects and pursuits, and indifferent 
towards others; but they have all, substantially, the same facul- 
ties, and the same desire for the acquisition of knowledoe, in one 
shape or another, when its objects are presented, in an interestino- 
manner, to their view. — Such exhibitions as I have now described 
ought not to be viewed as mei^e arnvscments. Wliile they gratify 
the mind of a child, and increase his enjoyments, they also cm- 
body a train of usciul instructions, which lay the foundation of 



MATERNAL ASSOCIATIONS. 107 

mental activity, and of all those improvements he may afterwards 
make during the future scenes of his existence, whether in the 
present life, or in the life to come. And, if this he admitted,- it 
will evidently appear to be a matter of considerable importance 
— that nothing but useful and correct ideas be imparted to the 
infant mind, and that care be taken that every thing that is whim- 
sical, fanciful, or inconsistent with existing facts, be excluded 
from juvenile instruction, s© that a child may never afterwards 
have occasion to struggle with youlhful projudicos, or to coun- 
teract any of the instructions or impressions he had previously 
received. And in order to accomplish this end, it is requisite, 
that servants, nurses, and every other person connected with a 
family, be specifically instructed as to the manner in which they 
ought to conduct themselves towards children, both in their words 
and their actions, — and strictly looked after, that nothing be said 
or done inconsistent with the rules of parental tuition. — At the 
period of life to which I now refer, it woujd be almost prepos- 
terous, to pester the child with learning the characters of the 
alphabet, or the uninteresting sounds of b a, ba, b i, bi, b o, bo ; 
unless it can be done purely in the way of amusement. For a 
child is generally disgusted with every thing given him as a task, 
and which is not accompanied with pleasing emotions. It is quite 
time enough, at the age of four years, in ordinary cases, to 
instruct a child in reading his native language ; though, before 
this time, he may speak it with considerable correctness, and 
acquire an indefinite number of ideas. And when he has once 
seriously commenced his scholastic instructions, they should be 
associated with every thing that may have a tendency to render 
them interesting and delightful — a principle which ought to be 
kept in view throughout all the subsequent departments of edu- 
cation. 

I have enlarged farther on the subject of infant education than 
I at first intended, from a strong conviction of its primary im- 
portance to the improvement of society in knowledge and virtue. 
If domestic training, during the three first years of human ex- 
istence, be either trifled with, or not conducted on rational and 
moral principles, the arrangements in regard to their future edu- 
cation will be to a certain degree frustrated. The habits acquired, 
and the impressions made upon the mind of a child, during this 
period, may have an influence on his improvement and happiness, 
not only in the present world, but throughout the whole of that 
endless existence to which he is destioed."^' 



* It gives me pleasure to learn, that the siihjcct of infant education is 
now beginning to excite more attention than it has hitherto received ; par- 



109 INFANT SCHOOLS. 

CHAPTER IV. 
On Infant Schools. 

Not many years ago, it would have been deemed romantic, 
and even absurd in the extreme, to have attempted the establish- 
ment of seminaries for the instruction of infants of the age of 
eighteen or twenty months, or ieven of two or three years. But 
such institutions have not only been attempted, but actually es- 
tablished to a considerable extent in various States both in Europe 
and America, and have been attended with the most delightful 
and beneficial effects. Children, at a very early period, as formerly 
noticed, before they have acquired the alphabet of any language, 
are capable of receiving a very considerable portion of mental 
instruction. They possess the^ue senses, in nearly as great per- 
fection as those of mature years; and it is through the medium 
of these senses that all our knowledge, whether historical, philo- 
sophical, or religious, is acquired. Children possess, in a high 
degree, the desire of novelty and the principle oC curiosity — facul- 
ties intended by the Creator to stimulate to the prosecution of 
knowledge ; and it is only requisite, that we direct the operation 
of these faculties in a proper channel, and present interesting and 
appropriate objects to stimulate their activity. 

The principal objects of infant schools ought therefore to be — 
to exhibit to the view of children as great a variety as possible 
of the scenes of nature and the operations of art, either by di- 
recting their views immediately to the objects themselves, or by 
means of pictorial representations — to teach them to distinguish 



ticularly by the establishment of Jllaternal dissociations. The first mater- 
nal institution appears to have originated with Mrs. Payson of Portland, 
province of Maine, North America, about 1815. A maternal association 
was first organized in Utica, in 1824. It commenced Avith eight niembers ; 
but it appears from the Report of 1833, that it now consists of above a 
hundred. Similar associations were formed, about the same time, in Bos- 
ton, New England, and at Hartford, and they liave lately been organized in 
Glasgow, Greenock, and several other towns in Great Britain. Their object 
is to diffuse information in relation to the best methods of training up chil- 
dren in knowledge and moral habits, and promoting their best interests, 
both in respect to the present life and the life to come. For accomplishing 
these objects — besides regular meetings for prayer and conversation, at 
which the children sometimes attend — a periodical has been commenced in 
America, entitled, "The Mother's Magazine," which is reprinted in Lon- 
don, containing various useful facts, narratives, and observations, illustrative 
of this subject. Such associations, if judiciously conducted, cannot fail of 
producing a highly beneficial effect on the rising generation, and ultimately 
on the state of general society. 



MACHINERY OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 109 

one object from another, to mark its peculiar qualities, to compare 
one object with another, and to deduce certain useful truths or 
conclusions from them — to instruct them how to use their voices, 
their eyes and ears, their hands and feet — to teach them the pro- 
perties of numbers, the magnitudes, distances, and relative posi- 
tions of objects, the forms and habits of animals, the different 
classes and uses of vegetables and minerals, the various objects 
to' be seen in the fields and gardens, and the general aspect and 
phenomena of the atmosphere and the heavens — to impress their 
minds with the existence of a Supreme Being, of their continual 
dependence upon him, of his Goodness, Power, and Omnipresence, 
and of the duties they owe him — to teach them the fundamental 
maxims and rules of the Christian system, and make them re- 
duce them to practice — to train them to kindness and affection 
towards one another, to habits of cleanliness, neatness, and regu- 
larity in all their movements, and to conduct themselves with 
moral order and propriety, both in the school, the play-ground, 
and in their domestic associations — in short, to develop all the 
intellectual and moral powers of the mind, at a much earlier 
period than has hitherto been deemed expedient, in order to prevent 
the growth of vicious habits and false opinions, and to prepare 
them for all the subsequent instructions and scenes of action 
through which they may afterwards pass, that they may become 
blessings, instead of curses, to the world, and rise up in wisdom 
and knowledge, and in favour with God and with man. 

In order to accomplish these purposes with the greatest effect, 
infant schools, as well as all others, should be erected, if possible, 
in an open and commanding situation, that a full view may be 
obtained of the heavens, the earth, and the ordinary phenomena 
of nature. The best dimensions for the school-room are found to 
be about 80 feet long, by 22 or 24 wide, with seats all round, and 
a rising platform or gallery at one end. Connected with this 
should be a room, from 14 to 18 feet square, for the purpose of 
teaching the children in classes, and for thqse children who have 
made greater progress than the rest, that they may be trained for 
monitors. The furniture necessary for such a school, consists of 
a desk for the master ; a rostrum for the occasional use of the 
monitors ; seats for the children, who should all sit round the 
school-room with their backs to the wall ; a lesson-stand, of a 
considerable elevation, for exhibiting pictures and lessons pasted 
on mill-board ; stools for the monitors ; slates and pencils ; pic- 
tures of natural history, of scriptural subjects, of landscapes, of 
rural and domestic life, &c. ; alphabets and spelling-lessons ; brass 
letters and figures, with boards for them ; cubes, parallelograms, 

10 



110 MODE or TEACHING IN INFANT SCHOOLS. 

geometrical figures of various descrijitions, illustrative of plain 
and solid geometry ; the transposition-frame, or arithmeticon, for 
illustrating the properties of numbers. To these should be added 
various little books, with cuts, level to the comprehension of chil- 
dren ; and sets of maps, on a large scale, with the states, king- 
doms, provinces, counties, &c. accurately distinguished and neatly 
coloured. It is indispensably requisite that a play-ground be at- 
tached to every infant school, containing swings and other con- 
trivances for the purpose of amusement, and that the children 
may divert themselves without danger, in any innocent way their 
fancies may devise. This play-ground should be as spacious as 
possible. Even in towns, where property is most valuable, the 
space allotted for this purpose (including the school-room and 
teacher's house) should not, if possible, be less than about 180 
feet long, and from 60 to 100 feet broad. In villages, where the 
ground is less valuable, it may be made of still larger dimensions. 
With such accommodations, infants, to the number of 150 or 200, 
may be trained by a master and an occasional assistant. 

One of the main principles on which infant schools should be 
conducted, is that of Love ; and therefore, in commencing such 
an institution, every action and every circumstance should be 
attended to, which is calculated to convince them that their 
teacher sincerely loves them, and wishes to promote their happi- 
ness, and that they ought to be kind and affectionate to one an- 
other. The first difficulty to be encountered, is to arrest and 
keep up their attention, to make them act in concert, and to class 
them according to their age and capacities, causing those who 
obey any commands with the greatest promptness to be classed 
together. Such difficulties are generally surmounted by making 
them all move their hands and feet at the same time, when re- 
peating any sentence ; sometimes by causing them to march in a 
regular body round the school ; sometimes by making them put 
their hands one on the other when they are repeating a fact or a 
sentiment, and sometimes by exciting them to dance to the sound 
of a clarionet or the viol. Monitors are selected by drilling the 
oldest and the most expert of the children at separate hours, in- 
structing them particularly in the work they have to perform, and 
making every one of them answerable for the conduct of his 
class. These little masters frequently conduct themselves with 
great shrewdness and ability, and sometimes with a degree of 
importance and pomposity which it is found necessary to check. 
The children are taught singing, by the master singing a psalm 
or hymn several times in their hearing, till they acquire a certain 
idea of the tune ; after which they are required to join with the 



METHOD OF TEACHING THE ALPHABET. Ill 

teacher, and, in a short time, the greater part are enabled to join 
in the music with considerable correctness ; and nothing can bo 
more interesting and exhilarating to a pious and benevolent mind, 
than to listen to a hundred young voices thus joining in unison, 
in a hymn of praise to their Creator. They are taught to repeat 
hymns generally in the following manner. One of the monitors 
is placed in the rostrum, with a book in his hand ; he then reads 
one line, and pauses till all the children in unison have repeated 
it ; he then reads or repeats another, and so on in succession till 
the hymn is finished. The same method is adopted in teaching 
them spelling, catechisms, moral maxims and precepts, and what- 
ever else is to be committed to memory. It should, however, be 
attended to, that every thing they commit to memory from cate- 
chisms, hymns, or other books, should be previously explained ; 
so that in every case, if possible, they may acquire the ideas con- 
tained in the passages they are to repeat, before they charge their 
memories with the vocables by which they are expressed. 

The Alphabet is taught by means of twenty-six cards, corre- 
sponding to the number of letters, on each of which is engraved a 
letter, along with some object of nature or art, whose name begins 
with that letter. Thus, on the card of the letter A is engraved an 
apple. This card is held up to the children, who name the letter 
and the object depicted beside it. A variety of questions is then 
put representing the nature, form, and properties of the apple, and 
of the root, trunk, branches, leaves, &c. of the tree on which it 
grows ; by which the attention of the children is kept alive, cer- 
tain portions of^ useful knowledge communicated, and the idea of 
the letter more deeply impressed upon their minds. On the card 
of letter C, a cow, a camel, or a cat, is depicted ; which is exhi- 
bited in the same manner, and various questions put respecting 
the figure, parts, habits, and uses of either of these animals: and 
so on through the other letters of the alphabet. This exhibition 
is varied as much as possible, and practised only two or three 
times a week, that the children may not be wearied by its too 
frequent repetition. Another plan is sometimes adopted, — an al- 
phabet, printed in large letters, both Roman and Italic, is pasted 
on a board, and placed against the wall ; the whole class then 
stands around it, and the master or mistress points to the letters, 
desiring the children in a body to pronounce the letter to which 
he points. In spelling, each child is supplied with a card and tin, 
on which certain short words are printed. A monitor leads the 
rest in the following manner: " C-h-a-i-r ;" the other children 
immediately follow : and when they have spelled one word, he 
repeats another, till he has gone through all the words on the 



112 



METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHJIETIC 



card. For the purpose of teaching the older children to ivrife the 
alphabet, they are supplied with slates, on which the whole alpha- 
bet is engraved — some in capital letters, and others in text ; the 
children then put the pencil into the engraving, and work it round 
into the shape of the letter, which they can scarcely avoid doing, 
as the pencil will keep in the engraved part. In this way they 
gradually learn both to form the letters correctly, and to read 
written characters and sentences. 

The properties and numbers, and the fundamental rules of 
Arithmetic, are taught by various modes ; particularly by an in- 
strument which has been termed the Arithmeticon, or Transposi- 
tion-frame. The following is a figure and description of the use 
of this instrument, taken from Mr. Wilderspin : — " The frame is 
sixteen inches square, and made of wood : twelve wires pass 
through it at equal distances; on which wires, seventy -eight 
moveable balls are to be placed, beginning with one on the first, 
two on the second, three on the third, &c. up to twelve." By 
this instrument may be taught " the first principles of grammar, 
arithmetic, and geometry. It is used ^s follows — Move one of 




^i^^^^^i^^i^^i^^i^i^^^gi^ 



the balls to a part of the frame distinct from the rest : the chil- 
dren will then repeat, ' There it is, there it is.' Apply your finger 
to the ball, and set it running round : the children will immedi- 
ately change from saying, ' There it is,' to ' There it goes, there 
it goes.' When they have repeated 'There it goes,' long enough 
to impress it on their memory, stop the ball : the children will 
probably say, ' Now it stops, now it stops.' When that is the 



METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 113 

case, move another ball to it, and then explain to the children the 
difTercnco between singular and plural, desiring them to call out, 
* There they are, there they are ; and when they have done that 
as long as may be proper, set both balls moving, and it is likely 
they will call out, ' There they go, there they go,' &z,c. &c. By 
the natural position of the balls they may be taught to begin at the 
first. The master, raising it at the top of the frame, says, ' What 
am I doing?' Children answer, 'Raising the ball up with your 
hand.' Q. ' Which hand ]' A. ' Left hand.' Then the master 
lets the ball drop, saying, ' One, one.' Raise the two balls, and 
propose questions of a similar tendency : then let them fall ; the 
children will say, ' Twice one :' raise three, and let them fall as 
before ; the children will say, ' Three times one.' Proceed to 
raise the balls on each remaining wire, so that they may say, as 
the balls are let fall. Four times one, five times one, six times one, 
seven times one, eight times one, nine times one, ten times one, 
eleven times one, twelve times one. We now proceed as follows : 
1 and 2 are 3, and 3 are 6, and 4 are 10, and 5 are 15, and 6 
are 21, and 7 are 28, and 8 are 36, and 9 are 45, and 10 are 55, 
and 11 are 66, and 12 are 78. Subtraction is taught by this 
instrument thus; — Take 1 from 1, nothing remains, moving the 
first ball, at the same time, to the other end of the frame. Then 
remove one from the second wire, and say, ' Take 1 from 2 ;' the 
children will instantly perceive that only one remains : then 1 
from &, and 2 remain ; 1 from 4, 3 remain ; 1 from 5, 4 remain, 
&c. Multiplication is taught as follows : — The teacher moves 
the first ball, and immediately after the two balls on the second 
wire, placing them underneath the first, saying, at the same time, 
' Twice one are two,' which the children will readily perceive. 
Next, remove the two balls on the second wire for a multiplier, 
and then remove two balls on the third wire, placing them exactly 
under the first two, which form a square, and then say, ' Twice 
two are four,' which every child will discern for himself, as he 
plainly perceives there arc no more. We then move three on the 
third wire, and place three from the fourth wire underneath them, 
saying, ' Twice three are six.' Remove four on the fourth wire, 
and four on the fifth ; place them as before, and say, * Twice four 
are eight :' " and so on, through all the wires and balls. 

The first principles of arithmetic are also taught, by means of 
small cubes. The children are formed into a square, in the centre 
of which is placed a table, on which the cubes are placed — one, 
two, three, or four at a time. The master puts down three, for ex- 
ample, and inquires of the children how many there are ; when 
they naturally call out, " Three." He puts down two more ; and 

10* 



114 METHOD OF TEACHING THE BIBLE. 

inquires as before, " How many are three and two?" they answer, 
*' Five :" and thus goes on till he has put down to the number of 
fifty or sixty. In a similar manner Subtraction is illustrated, by 
placing, for example, 9 cubes on the table, and saying, " Take 5 
from 9, how many will remain ?" and, removing 5 cubes, it will 
be seen that 4 remain, &c. The multiplication table, the pence 
tables, the tables of money, time, weights, and measures, are 
taught by a monitor repeating certain portions of them at a time, 
and being immediately followed by all the children in unison. 
Thus, when the monitor announces, "7 times 8 are 56," or 
"Forty pence are three and fourpence," the children in a body re- 
peat the same ; and in a short time the whole of these tables are 
impressed upon their memories. 

The leading facts of Sacred History are communicated by 
means of a series of historical pictures, and by a variety of mi- 
nute descriptions and interrogatories. The more interesting facts 
of Natural History are exhibited by a number of large cards, on 
which are pasted engraved representations of quadrupeds, birds, 
fishes, insects, trees, flowers, and similar objects ; in the explana- 
tion of which an opportunity is taken of detailing their forms, 
qualities, and uses, and any anecdotes that may occur respecting 
them. Knowledge is also communicated in relation to many 
common and useful subjects, by presenting before them real ob- 
jects, such as gold, silver, copper, brass, tinfoil ; a piece of flax, 
thread, raw silk, twisted silk, cotton, linen, gauze, nankin, ging- 
ham, silk velvet, &c., describing the different processes connected 
with their manufacture, and teaching the children how to recog- 
nise and distinguish such substances. But, as I have no intention 
of entering into the minute details connected with infant schools, 
I refer those who wish a more particular account of these institu- 
tions, to Mr. Wilderspin's excellent treatise on " Infant Educa- 
tion, " and Mr. Stow's " Moral Training,"* and shall conclude 
this article by a few general remarks on the advantages which 
would result from the universal establishment of such seminaries, 

1. The establishment of infant schools in every region of the 
globe would increase, to an indefinite degree, the mass of useful 
information among mankind. Three or four years of the most 
important period of human life have hitherto been suflfered to pass 
away without any material intellectual improvement. The young, 
indeed, during this period, acquired various fragments of useful 
knowledge, in spite of our remissness and inattention ; for the 

* " Moral Training, Infant and Juvenile, as applicable to the condition of 
the Population of large Towns. By David Stow, a Director of the Model 
Schools, Glasgow. Second Edition, enlarged." With plates. 



ADVANTAGES OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 115 

principle of curiosity was always alive, and could never be al- 
together suppressed, wherever objects appeared by which it might 
be roused and gratified. But we never thought of directing their 
senses and mental powers, regularly and systematically, to the 
forms, qualities, uses, and characteristic features, of surrounding 
objects, as if such things had been beyond the range of their 
comprehension ; while, at the same time, we tortured their me- 
mories with the retention of sounds and sentences with which 
they felt disgusted, and which they could not understand. But 
the experiment of infant schools has shown, (and, if we had not 
acted like fools in the business of education, it might long ago 
have been demonstrated,) that children from the age of three to 
six years are capable of acquiring far more of what may properly 
be denominated knowledge, than what had been acquired by our 
usual insipid modes of instruction at the age of twelve or fourteen. 
And, what is worthy of particular attention, this knowledge has 
been acquired, not only without " stripes and imprisonment," but 
with the highest degree of satisfaction and enjoyment on the part 
of the young. If the world, therefore, is ever to be thoroughly 
enlightened, in every thing which relates to the present happiness 
and the eternal interests of mankind, and if the knowledge of 
Jehovah is " to cover the earth as the waters cover the seas," the 
foundation must be laid in the universal establishment of infant 
schools, on the most judicious and expansive plans, in every na- 
tion under heaven. 

2. It is not only the amount of knowledge actually acquired, 
during the period alluded to, but the intellectual habits formed 
during its acquisition, which render such instructions of immense 
importance. For want of these habits being formed in early life, 
the great bulk of mankind may be said to have " eyes, but see 
not — ears, but hear not," and consequently "do not understand ;" 
they know neither the proper use of their sensitive organs, nor 
are qualified to deduce proper conclusions from the objects to 
which they are occasionally directed; but pass through life with- 
out any rational application of the senses and faculties with 
which they are furnished. Is there one out of ten that has ascer- 
tained, from his own observations, that the starry heavens per- 
form an apparent revolution round the earth every twenty-four 
hours, around a certain fixed point called the pole? Is there one 
out of twenty that can tell at what seasons of the year the new 
moon will appear at a high elevation above the horizon, and when 
the full moon will appear high or low? And yet these facts ntiay 
be ascertained, without the least difficulty, by a simple applica- 
tion of the organs of vision to the respective objects, combined 



116 ADVANTAGES OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 

with a desire to know the results ; — in the first case, the object 
may be determined in the course of a single day, and in the latter 
case, within the course of a year ; and yet it is a fact, that sixt)' 
or seventy years have passed away, in the case of thousands and 
millions of those who are denominated rational beings, without 
their knowing either the one or the other. The same position 
might be illustrated in thousands of similar instances, where the 
grossest ignorance prevails in relation to multitudes of objects, 
which might have been prevented by a rational use of the sensitive 
organs with v/hich the Creator has endowed us. Now, in infant 
schools, children are trained to a proper application of their sensi- 
tive powers — presented with suitable objects on which they may 
be exercised, and taught to deduce from them useful truths, with 
their practical applications. These intellectual habits being formed 
in early life, will naturally be brought into more vigorous and 
extensive exercise as they advance in years, and lay the founda- 
tion of all the treasures of knowledge they may accumulate, both 
in the present life and throughout the ages of eternity. Such 
habits being formed and continually exercised, a relish for know- 
ledge, and activity of mind, are produced, which will facilitate 
all their subsequent acquisitions, and render them interesting and 
delightful ; so that, in whatever stations in society they may 
afterwards be placed, they will be distinguished as men of wis- 
dom and intelligence — provided their subsequent education he 
conducted on the same rational principles. 

3. What is of still greater importance, — in these schools the 
foundations are laid of moral and religious habits. It has 
been the practice hitherto, in infant schools — a practice which I 
trust will never be abolished — that the children have their minds 
impressed with the idea of an Omnipresent Being, who continual- 
ly supports them, and to whom they are amenable for all their 
actions — that their exercises are uniformly commenced with 
prayer, and with a hymn of praise to the Creator and Redeemer 
of men — that the leading facts of Revelation are detailed in the 
most simple and interesting manner, and its moral precepts en- 
forced in all their associations with each other — that the principles 
of fraud, dishonesty, deceit, hatred and malignity, wherever they 
appear, are strictly checked and counteracted, and the practice of 
love, kindness, honesty, justice and truth, enforced and exempli- 
fied. Now, such truths inculcated, and such practices enforced 
and exemplified, for several years, when the mind is susceptible 
of every impression, and of being moulded into any habit, must 
be of immense importance in a moral point of view — and if such 
seminaries were universally established, conducted on liberal and 



ADVANTAGES OP INFANT SCHOOLS. Il7 

judicious plans, and succeeded by seminaries of a higher order, 
conducted on similar moral principles — society would soon as- 
sume a new moral aspect, wickedness and debauchery would be 
banished fron^ our streets, thefts and robberies would gradually 
be diminished, bravvlings, contentions and execrations would cease, 
and harmony and good-will be introduced into the schemes and 
associations of mankind. 

It is an injunction inculcated by the highest authority, " Train 
up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will 
not depart from it.'''' The last part of this sentence contains a 
most important truth, stated without the least exception or modi- 
fication. The interpretation generally given of it by divines is, 
*' He will not ordinarily depart from it." But what warrant 
have we thus to limit and modify the dictates of inspiration? Let 
the declaration be viewed as a universal and eternal truth, and 
the problem to be solved will be, "Has ever a child hitherto, in 
all points of view, intellectually and morally, been trained up in 
the way he should go ?" If so, we ought to believe that the decla- 
ration in this passage was fully realized in such a case. Much 
has been said respecting the children of pious parents turning 
aside from the paths of rectitude in their riper years. But tha 
fact to be determined is, Have such parents trained up their 
children in a rational, judicious, and benevolent manner? I have 
seen persons piously disposed, and even ministers of the gospel, 
train up their children as foolishly and injudiciously as those who 
made no profession of religion, and even with less wisdom and 
discretion. Not that they intended to train their offspring in any 
bad principles and practices, but that they were either ignorant 
of the true mode of training children, or had imbibed false max- 
ims, or indulged a foolish fondness, or had neglected to bring 
their children under a judicious control, or had humoured their 
whims and pampered their appetites, or were placed in certain 
circumstances, and in the midst of difficulties over which they had 
little control. Even in attempting to teach their children the prin- 
ciples of Christianity, their plans have been calculated rather to 
excite disgust at religion, than to allure their hearts to the prac- 
tice of its heavenly precepts. What else could be expected, 
when children, on the Sabbath, were confined to a corner, con- 
ning memorial tasks^ committing to memory catechisms, Psalms, 
and chapters from their tattered New Testaments, of which they 
understood not a single sentence — and at the same time deprived 
of their usual sensitive enjoyments, and, doubtless, exclaiming in 
their hearts, " O what a weariness is it ! when will the Sabbath 
be over?" — just as if religion consisted in the acquisition of tech- 



118 ADVANTAGES OF INFANT TUITION. 

nical terms, sounds and sentences, and metaphysical dogmas. 
Is this the way to induce the 3'oung to love God, "to call his 
Sabbaths a delight, and the holy of the Lord, honourable?" or is 
it to be wondered at, that those who have been brought up in this 
way have sometimes struck off at a tangent from the restraints 
of religion to the ways of sin and folly? If the whole train of 
education through which such children passed, from the first year 
of their existence to the period when they turned aside from the 
paths of righteousness, were laid open to our view, we should, 
doubtless, be enabled to account for all such moral aberrations, 
and to trace the intimate connection between cause and efTect. 

I have thrown out these remarks for the purpose of showing, 
that if public and domestic education be conducted with judgment 
and piety, if children be trained in infant schools and other semi- 
naries in useful knowledge, and to the habits of piety and moral 
order, — we have the surest grounds for concluding, that, when 
arrived at mature age, they will become intelligent and useful 
members both of Christian and of civil society, and that our 
arrangements and labours in these respects " shall not be in vain 
in the Lord." The dictates of Inspiration on this point are in 
perfect unison with the laws of the moral world, and are corrobo- 
rated by univei-^al experience. Almost every person feels that 
early impressions are the most vivid and the most lasting ; and it 
is a fact, that, according to the bent which the habits, dispositions, 
and conduct of the young receive, during the first ten or twelve 
years of their existence, such will it generally remain, with a few 
slight modifications, during the future periods of their lives. 
Hence the diifjculties — in many cases insurmountable — which 
must be encountered, in order to counteract the habits and vicious 
propensities acquired during this early period ; and hence the 
comparative ease with which children may be trained to intelli- 
gence and moral habits, when they nw committed, at a very 
early age, to the care of a judicious and intelligent teacher of an 
infant school.* 

* As an illustration of tlie moral and intellectual eficcts of infant teach- 
ing, I subjoin ths following examples, taken from Mr. "WiUlerspin's "Infant 
Education," as what occurred in the course of his own experience : — 

1. The Whistle. " Many of the children were in the habit of bringing 
marbles, tops, whistles, and other toys, to the school, which often caused 
much disturbance : I found it necessary to forbid the children from bringing 
any thing of the kind. After giving notice two or three times in the school, 
I told them, that if any of them brought such things, they would be taken 
from them. In conseq\ience, several things fell into my hands, which I did 
not always think of returning ; and among other things, a whistle from a 
little boy. The child asked me for it as he was going home, hut having 



MORAL EFFECTS OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 119 

4. Infant schools are calculated to rescue thousands of cJiil- 
dren from the pernicious infuence of ignorant and immoral pa- 

several visitors at the time, I put the child off, telling him not to plague me, 
and he went home. I had forgotten the circumstance altogether, but it 
appears the child did not ; for some time after, while I was lecturing the 
children upon the necessity of telling truth, and on the wickedness of steal- 
ing, the little fellow appi-oached me, and said, 'Please, sir, you stole my 
■whistle.^ ' Stole your whistle,' said I, ' did I not give it you again V ' No, 
teacher; I asked you for it, and you would not give it to me.' I stood self- 
convicted, being accused in the middle of my lecture, before all the children, 
and really at a loss to know what excuse to make, for I had mislaid thi^, 
whistle, and could not return it to the child. I immediately gave the child 
a halfpenny, and said all I could to persuade the children that it was not 
my intention to keep it. — This trifling mistake of mine did more harm than 
I was able to repair for some time ; for if we wish to teach children to be 
honest, we should nevgr take any thing from them without returning it 
again." — This story shows how necessary it is to teach by example as well 
as precept — and that children have a clear perception of any discrepancy 
that may take place in this respect. 

2. T/iL^ boy and llvi song. " One day while I was walking in the play- 
ground, I saw at one end of it about twenty children, apparently arguing a 
subject, pro and con. From the attitude of several of the orators, I judged 
it was about something v/hich appeared to them of considerable importariCL\ 
I wished to know the subject of debate, but was satisfied that if I approach- 
ed the children it might put an end to the matter altogether. Some of the 
by-standers saw me looking very attentively at the principal actor ; and, as 
I suppose, suggested to the party the propriety of retiring to some other 
spot ; for immediately they all retired behind a partition, which aftbrded me 
an opportunity of distinctly hearing all that passed, without being obser\'ed 
by them. I soon found that the subject of debate was a song. It seems 
that one of the children had brought a song to the school, which some of 
the monitors had read, and having decided that it was an improper thinj 
for the child to have in his possession, one of them had taken it from the 
owner, and destroyed it; the aggrieved party had complained to some of 
the other children, who said that it was thieving for one child to take any 
thing from another child without his consent. The boy, nettled at being 
called a thief, defended himself by saying that he, as a monit.>r, had a right 
to take away from any of his class any thing that v,as calculated to do them 
harm ; *and was, it seems, backed in this opinion by maiiy others. On the 
other hand, it was contended, that no such ri,"-]it existed ; and it was doubt- 
ful to me, for a considerable time, on which side the strength of the argu- 
ment lay. At last, one of the children observed to the following eftect : 
You should have taken it to master, because he would know if it was bad 
oetter than you.' This was a convincing argument, and to my great de- 
light the boy replied — ' How nmch did the song cost V The reply was, ' A 
halfpenny.' ' Here, then, take it,' says the child, ' I had one given me to- 
day ; so now remember I have paid you for it ; but if you bring any more 
songs to school, I will tell master.' This seemed to give general satisfaction 
to the whole party, who immediately dispersed to their several amusements. 
A struggle like this between the principles of duty and honesty, among chil- 
dren so very youn^j exemplifies, beyond a doubt, the immense advantage 



120 MORAL EFFECTS OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 

rents, and to prevent most of those crimes which injure the peace 
and prosperity of society. The immoral principles and vicious 
habits in which multitudes of children are trained under the do- 
mestic roof, not only lay the foundation of their own unhappiness 
and ruin, but are productive of many pests and nuisances to 
general society. In cities and populous towns, this fact is too 
frequently realized. Many children are trained up, even by their 
parents, to habits of pilfering, v/hich they sometimes learn to 

of early instruction." — Here we have a specimen, in the case of very young 
children, of nice discrimination in regard to the principles of moral rectitude 
and of reasoning, which would have done no discredit to an assembly of 
senators. 

3. Infant critics. " Having discoursed one day on the difference be- 
tween isosceles and scalene triangles, I observed that an acute isosceles tri- 
angle had all its angles acute ; and proceeded to observe that a right-angled 
scalene triangle had all its angles acute. The children immediately began 
to laugh, for which I was at a loss to account, and told them of the impro- 
priety of laughing at me. One of the children immediately replied, ' Please, 
sir, do you know what we were laughing at V I replied in the negative. 
' Then, sir,' says the boy, ' I will tell you. Please, sir, you have made a 
blunder.' I, thinking I had not, proceeded to defend myself, vyhcn the chil- 
dren replied, ' Please, sir, you convict yourself.' I replied, ' How so ]' 
' Why,' say the children, ' you said a right-angled triangle had one right 
angle, and that all its angles are acute. If it has one right angle, how can 
all its angles be acute ]' I soon perceived that the children were right, and 
that I was wrong.: — At another time, when lecturing the children on the 
subject of cruelty to animals, one of the little children observed, ' Please, 
sir, my big brother catches the poor flies, and then sticks a pin through them, 
and makes them draw the pin along the table.' This afforded me an excel 
lent opportunity of appealing to their feelings on the enormity of this of- 
fence ; and, among other things, I observed, that if a poor fly had been gift- 
ed with powers of speech like their own, it probably would have exclaimed, 
■while dead, as follows ; — ' You naughty child, how can you think of tor- 
turing me so 1 Is there not room enough in the world for you and me ? 
Did I ever do you any harm 1 Does it do you any good to put me to such 
harm 1 How would you like a man to run a piece of wire through your 
body, and make you draw things about] Would you not cry at the pain]' 
&c. Having finished, one of the children replied, ' How can any thing 
speak if it is dead]' 'Why,' said I, 'supposing it could speak.' 'You 
meant to say, sir, diiing, instead of dead.' — In this case I purposely misused 
a word, and the children detected it." — Here we have another instance of 
the nice discrimination of which children are capable, and of the great im- 
portance of their being taught to thinh — one of the most important parts of 
education, which has been so long overlooked. In consequence of their 
having acquired the elements of thought, they were enabled, in the one 
case, to refute the assertion of their teacher, by a conclusive argument ; and, 
in the other, to detect the misapplication of a term. A whole community 
taught to think and reason, would be the means of preventing numerous 
cvjlri, and of introducing innumerable blessings into iKo social state. 



MORAL ErrECTS OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 121 

practise with the utmost cunning and expertness, without the leasl 
sense of moral delinquency. It was estimated, that in the year 
1819, in the city of London alone, the number of boys who pro- 
cured the greater part of their subsistence by picking pockets, 
and thieving in every possible form, amounted to from twelve to 
fifteen hundred! One man had forty boys in training to steal 
and pick pockets, who were paid for their exertions with a part 
of the plunder ; and a woman who had entrapped eight or ten 
children from their parents, had them trained up and sent out in 
every direction for the purpose of thieving, till she was happily 
. detected. Such children, in all probability, were chiefly procured 
from the families of the ignorant and the vicious ; and when a 
habit of pilfering is early indulged, it not only leads to the prac- 
tice of falsehood, cunning and deceit, in all their diversified forms, 
but entirely blunts the moral sense, and leads to the commission 
of almost every other crime. It is no uncommon thing to observe 
in the police reports of London, accounts of boys, and even girls, 
of six or seven years of age, being apprehe'nded for the offences 
of pocket-picking, shop-lifting, stripping children of their clothes and 
ornaments, and simitar depredations committed with all the ex- 
pertness of an experienced delinquent. And, if such mental ac- 
tivities are so early displayed in the arts of wickedness, liow im- 
portant must it be to bend tlie active povvcrs of the young in a 
contrary direction, and how many useful energies might we soon 
bring to bear upon the renovation of the moral world ! For, not- 
withstanding the depravity of human nature, children may be 
trained to exert their skill and activities in the cause of virtue, as 
well as in the arts of mischief, if the same care and ingenuity be 
employed in their instruction. — Now, infant schools are peculiarly 
calculated to promote in children habits of virtuous activity. 
They are tai\ght to think and reason, and to apply the rules of 
Christianity to their actions and social intercourses with each 
other — are instructed in the evil of lying, swearing, stealing, and 
other vices; and some of them who had previously been addicted 
to these vices have been eficctually cured of such evil propensi- 
ties. Not only so, but the sentiments and habits they have car- 
ried home to their parents have sometimes been the means of 
arousing them to consideration, and turning them " from the error 
of their ways." And, although infant schools were established 
for no other purpose than prevention of crimes, it would save to 
the public ten times the expense that might be incurred in their 
erection and superintendence ; for, in large cities, such young de- 
linquents as I have now alluded to, regularly supply the place of 
the hundreds of cid and Oicperienced thieves that are yearly con- 

11 



122 INFANT SCHOOLS IN HEATHEN COUNTRIES. 

victed and transported to another country ; and the expense af- 
tcndin^ the conviction and transportation of one delinquent, is 
sometimes more than would suffice for the erection of an estab- 
lishment for the instruction of a hundred children. 

5. In infant schools, social habits and feelings may be culti- 
vated tcith safety afid with pleasure by the young. In most other 
circumstances the social intercourse of the young is attended with 
a certain degree of danger, from the influence of malignant pas- 
sions and vicious propensities which too frequently appear in the 
language and conduct of their companions. " Evil communica- 
tions corrupt good manners ;" so that the minds, even of those 
who are trained with pious care under the domestic roof, are in 
danger of being tainted with vice, when allowed to indulge in 
'promiscuous intercourse with their fellows. But in infant estab- 
lishments, they are, during the greater part of the day, under the 
inspection of their teachers, both in school and at play-hours, 
where nothing immoral is suffered to make its appearance ; and 
the exercises in which they are employed, the objects exhibited to 
their view, the mutual conversations in which they engage, and 
the amusements in which they indulge, form so many delightful 
associations, equally conducive to mental improvement and sensi- 
tive enjoyment, which will afterwards be recollected with a high 
degree of pleasure. 

6. The establishment of infant schools in heathen lands, wher- 
ever it is practicable, will, I conceive, be the most efficient means 
of undermining the fabric of Pagan superstition and idolatry^ 
and of converting unenlightened nations to the faith and prac- 
tice of our holy religion. When we would instruct adults in any 
thing to which they have been unaccustomed, we find the attempt 
extremely difficult, and frequently abortive, in consequence of the 
strong influence of long-established habits. In like manner, when 
we attempt to expound the truths of Christianity to the heathen, 
and enforce them on their attention, we encounter innumerable 
difficulties, arising from preconceived opinions, inveterate habits, 
long-established customs, ancient traditions, the laws and usages 
of their forefathers, the opinions of their superiors, and their 
ignorance of the fundamental principles of legitimate reasoning ; 
so that comparatively ^e\v of the adult heathen have been tho- 
roughly converted to the Christian faith, notwithstanding the 
numerous missionary enterprises which have been carried forward 
during the last thirty years. But if infant schools were extensively 
established, in all those regions which are the scene of missionary 
operations, wc should have thousands of minds prepared for the 
reception of Divine truth, having actually imbibed a portion of the 



INFANT SCHOOLS IN AFRICA. 123 

spirit of Christianity, and being unfettered by those heathenish 
prejudices and habits to which I have alluded. Every infant 
school, and every school of instruction conducted on the same 
principles, at which they might subsequently attend, would become 
a seminary for Christianity ; and we might, on good grounds, 
indulge the *hope that the greater part of the children trained up 
in such seminaries, when the truths and foundations of religion 
were more fully exhibited to them, would ultimately make a pro- 
fession of adherence to its cause and interests, and regulate their 
conduct by its holy requisitions. In this case, instead of a few 
insulated individuals occasionally embracing the religion of the 
Bible, we should frequently hear (to use the language of Scrip- 
ture) of " nations being born at once, and a people as in one day." 
For, the young thus instructed, when arrived at youth and man- 
hood, would exert a most powerful influence on their fathers, mo-^ 
thers, friends, and relatives, and on all around them — while their 
own minds have been brought under the most salutary influence, 
being pre-occupied with those truths and habits which will pre- 
serve them from the contamination of the heathenish practices 
which prevail around them. 

It gives me much pleasure to learn, that in the rudest portion 
of the pagan world, (namely, in the regions of Southern Africa,) 
such institutions have been recently established, and been accom- 
panied with many beneficial eflfects. Mr. Buchanan, superintendent 
of the infant school at Cape Town, during the year 1832, estab- 
lished and re-organized a number of these institutions, at Cale- 
don, Pacaltsdorp, Hankey, Bethelsdorp, Port Elizabeth, Theopolis, 
Philipston, Buffalo River, and other places ; and, though the 
returns of scholars are not complete, they amount to about 500 chil- 
dren. After the school in Theopolis had been established only 
six months, the number of children in daily attendance amounted 
to from 110 to 120. Many of the children were capable of giv- 
ing effect to the monitory system, and their conduct is described 
as cheerful, gentle, and compliant, although but a few months 
before they were most of them " in a state of nature." The infant 
school at Bethelsdorp was re-established, under the care of a native 
female. About two years ago it was discontinued, after having been 
carried on for six months. The advantages, however, which the 
children had derived during that short period, were evinced, not- 
withstanding the interval which had elapsed, by the superiority 
of manner and intelligence which the)^ appeared to Mr. Buchanan 
to possess over the uninstructed children of other stations. They 
had been accustomed, after the school was discontinued, to as'pom- 
ble in groups, and repeat for their amusement the lesson? and 



124 INFANT SCHOOLS IN AFRICA. 

hymns they had^learned at the school. Mr. Buchanan, on a 
former occasion, assisted in opening and organizing a school at 
Caledoii. On his late visit, he perceived a marked improvement 
in the dress and personal cleanliness of the children. At the 
opening of the school, out of thirty pupils, two only had any 
other covering than sheep-skins, and many were unclothed. 
When he last took his leave of them, they were all dressed like 
other children, and many of them with considerable neatness. It 
was apparent, that the children had acquired some sense of the 
propriety of dress and personal cleanliness, from their manner 
during the repetition of the lesson, " To put my clothes on neat 
and tigktf and see my hands and face are clean ;^^ and it was 
equally obvious that their parents appreciated the advantages of 
the institution, from the fact of some of them having voluntarily 
requested to be allowed gratuitously to clean out the school-room 
alternately, and of their having continued regularly to perform 
that service. The inhabitants of many other villages have ex- 
pressed a desire for the introduction of infant schools among 
themselves — offered to appropriate for that purpose the best house 
they had, and promised, when their lands shall be measured out 
to them, to erect a proper building at their joint expense. In 
several of the villages they had placed their children under the 
care and instruction of one of their own number, till a better 
teacher could be procured. Mr. Buchanan left at Philipston suf- 
ficient apparatus and lessons for the establishment of twelve 
schools — arrangements were in progress for their commencement 
— and six young persons were attending the schools, to qualify 
themselves for becoming teachers.* 

Such are the auspicious beginnings of infant education in hea- 
then lands, and the pleasure with which its introduction is hailed 
by the adult population. While many of them are unaware of 
the blessings to be derived from a reception of the doctrines of 
religion^ they are attracted by the beautiful arrangements and 
exercises of infant establishments, and at once perceive their 
beneficial tendency and effects on the objects of their affection ; 
and as their children advance in the accomplishments they acquire 
at these seminaries, they will every day become more interesting 
and delightful in their eyes ; and it is not too much to suppose, 
that the knowledge and habits acquired by the children v.'ill be 
the means of enlightening the understandings and polishing the 
manners of their parents. It ought, therefore, to be one of the 
first objects of every missionary, to whatever part of the heathen 

• See Evangcliral Magaziiie for Pccemher, 1833. 



ERRO^-EOUS VIEWS OF IXFA1\-T SCHOOLS. 125 

world he is destined, to establish, as far as practicable, seminaries 
for the development and instruction of infant minds ; and every 
facility for this purpose should be afforded him by the Society 
under whose auspices he goes forth to evangelize the nations. 

7. Infant schools ought to be universally established, /or all 
classes, and in every country of the civilized world. It is an 
opinion which still too much prevails, that such establishments 
are chiefly calculated for the instruction of the lower classes of 
society. But this is a gross misconception of the nature and 
tendency of infant institutions, and a very dangerous mistake. 
These schools are adapted no less for the improvement of the 
higher, than the lower ranks of the community ;• and, unless they 
be'soon adopted by the superior classes, the lower ranks may 
soon advance before them, both in point of intelligence and of 
moral decorum. For, in many of the families of the higher 
ranks, immoral maxims are inculcated and acted upon, and many 
foolish and wayward passions indulged, as well as in the families 
of their inferiors ; and, although the manners of their children 
receive a superficial polish superior to others, their moral disposi- 
tions are but little more improved, and they possess nearly as lit- 
tle of what may be termed useful knoivledge, as the great body 
of the lower ranks around them. Till the families of all classes 
feel the influence of the instructions and habits acquired at such 
institutions, the world will never be thoroughly regenerated. In 
the meantime, if the higher classes feel averse that their children 
should associate with those of an inferior grade, they have it in 
their power to establish infant seminaries exclusively for them- 
selves. But I am sorry to find, that, in this country, scarcely 
any schools of this description have yet been established. There 
ought^ however, to be no objections to children of difTerent ranks 
associating together for the purpose of instruction ; unless in those 
cases*where children are accustomed to dirty habits, or where 
they may be exposed to infectious diseases. In the Northen 
States of America, perhaps the most enlightened in the world, 
children of all ranks are taught in the same seminaries, without 
any artificial distinctions ; — all are nearly equally enlightened and 
improved, and society, in its several departments, moves on with 
the greatest harmony. 

In concluding these remarks, it may not be improper to observe, 
that teaching the children to read ought not to be considered as 
one of the main objects of infant schools. Many parents are still 
so ignorant and foolish, as to estimate the advantages of such 
schools, merely by the progress they conceive their children have 
attained in the art of reading. They are unqualified for appre- 

11* 



126 HI&TORY or INFANT SCHOOLS. 

dating intellectval instruction and moral habits, and have no 
higher ideas of the progress of education, than what arise from 
the circumstance of their children being transferred from one book 
to another ; and hence, they frequently complain, that their chil- 
dren are learning nothing, because no tasks are assigned them, 
and no books put into their hands. But, it ought to be generally 
understood, that the art of reading is not the main object of atten- 
tion in such seminaries, and that they would be of incalculable 
importance, even although the children were unable to recognise 
a.single letter of the alphabet. At the same time, the knowledge 
of the letters and elementary sounds, and the art of spelling and 
reading, are acquired in these schools — almost in the way of 
an amusement — with more facility and pleasure than on any 
plans formerly adopted. 

In throwing out the above remarks, I have all along taken for 
granted that infant schools are conducted by men of prudence and 
intelligence. It is not sufficient for insuring the beneficial effects 
of these institutions, that the individuals who superintend them 
have been instructed in the mode of conducting their mechanical 
arrangements. They ought to be persons of good sense, of bene- 
volent dispositions, having their minds thoroughly imbued with the 
principles of Christianity, of an easy, communicative turn, and 
possessed of all that knowledge of history^ art, and science, 
which they can possibly acquire. For no one can communicate 
more knowledge to others than what he himself has acquired ; 
and no teacher can render a subject interesting to the young, un- 
less he has acquired a comprehensive and familiar acquaintance 
with it. In order to secure efficient teachers for these establish- 
ments, normal schools, or other seminaries, would require to be 
established, in which candidates for the office of infant teachers 
might be instructed, not only in the mode of conducting such in- 
stitutions, but in all the popular branches of useful knowledge. 
For, upon the intelligence, as well as the prudence and moral 
disposition, of the teachers, the efficiency of infant seminaries will 
in a great measure depend. 

The first idea of infant schools appears to have been suggested 
by the asylums provided by Mr. Owen, of New Lanark, for the 
infant children of the people who were employed at his spinning- 
mills. Mr. Buchanan, under whose superintendence they were 
placed, was soon after invited to London, and a school was opened 
under his direction and management,' on Brewer's Green, West- 
minster, which was established and patronized by H. Brougham, 
Esq. M. P., the Marquis of Lansdowne, Zachary Macauley, Esq., 



HISTORY OP INFANT SCHOOLS. 127 

Benjamin Smith, Esq., Joseph Wilson, Esq., and about eight or 
nine other philanthropic gentlemen. Mr. Wilson soon afterwards 
established one at his own expense in Quaker Street, Spitalfields. 
He built the school-room, and supplied every thing that was ne- 
cessary; and, on the 24th July, 1820, the school was opened. 
On the first day, 26 children were admitted, on the next day 21, 
and, in a very short time, the number of children amounted to 220, 
all of whom came forward unsolicited. Mr. Wilderspin, who has 
since distinguished himself by his unwearied zeal in promoting 
the establishment of such institutions, was appointed teacher. The 
, Rev. Mr. Wilson, brother to J. Wilson, Esq., above mentioned, 
next established a similar school at Walthamstbw, of which par- 
ish he was vicar ; and an excellent lady, Miss Neave, opened one 
in Palmer's village, Westminster, for 160 children. In Duncan 
Street, Liverpool, the Society of Friends established, soon after, a 
very large one, and, in one day, collected among themselves, for 
this purpose, no less than one thousand pounds. All these schools 
were attended with complete success. A few years afterwards, 
namely, on the 1st of June, 1824, the Infant School Society was 
organized, at a meeting held at Freemason's Hall, London. The 
meeting was addressed, and powerful speeches -delivered on the 
occasion, by the Marquis of Lansdownc, Mr. Brougham, late Lord 
Chancellor, Mr. Smith, M. P., Mr. Wilberforce, Sir J. Mackin- 
tosh, W. Allen, Esq., Dr. Thorp, Dr. Lushington, the Rev. E. 
Irving, and others ; and, before the meeting had separated, a sub- 
scription, amounting to upwards of £700, was collected. 

Since the above period, infant schools have been established in 
most of the populous towns, and even in some of the villages, of 
the British Empire; and, wherever they have been conducted 
with prudence and intelligence, have uniformly been accompanied 
with many interesting and beneficial effects. They have also 
been established in many towns on the continent of Europe, and 
even in Southern Africa, and in the Peninsula of Ilindostan. The 
enlightened inhabitants of the Northern States of America, who 
eagerly seize on every scheme by which moral and intellectual 
improvement may be promoted, are now rapidly establishing such 
institutions, along with Maternal Associations, throughout every 
portion of their increasing and widely-spreading population; and, 
I trust, they will soon be introduced into every nation under hea- 
ven. But, before society at large feel the full influence of such 
seminaries, they will require to be multiplied nearly a hundred- 
fold beyond the number that presently exists. 



128 PLAN AND SITUATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 

9 

CHAPTER V. 

On Schools for Young Persons, from the age of five or six^ to 
the age of thirteen or fourteen years. 

During a period of two or three centuries, we have had schools 
established among us for the instruction of the young, during the 
period of life to which I now refer. There are few countries in 
Europe where such institutions, for the instruction of the great 
mass of society, are more numerous and respectable than in the 
island in which we reside ; — and had we not unfortunately stopped 
short at the very porch of the Temple of Science, we might by 
this time have been as far superior, in point of intelligence, to 
every other nation, as we now are to the savages of Patagonia 
and New Zealand. But, what is the amount of all the instruction 
generally furnished at our common initiatory schools? The ele- 
ments of spelling and pronunciation — a jargon of abstract gram- 
mar rules crammed into the memory without being understood — 
the art of writing — the capacity of repeating the vocables of a 
catechism, — and a mechanical knowledge of arithmetic, without 
understanding the foundation of its rules. This is the sum of all 
that tuition which is generally considered as necessary for en- 
lightening the human mind, and carrying forward the great body 
of the community in the path of moral and intellectual improve- 
ment, — a system of tuition by which the memory has been tor- 
tured, the understanding neglected, and the benevolent affections 
left waste and uncultivated. The effects it has produced, are 
visible to every intelligent mind that looks around and contem- 
plates the ignorance, servility, and licentiousness, which still 
abound in every department of society. 

If we, therefore, desire to behold knowledge and religious prin- 
ciple more extensively diffused, and society raised to its highest 
pitch of improvement, we must adopt more rational and efficient 
plans than those on which we have hitherto acted, and extend the 
objects of education to all those departments of knowledge in 
which man is interested, as a rational, social, and immortal being. — 
The following remarks are intended to embody a few hints in 
reference to such a system of tuition ; — and, in the first place, I 
shall attend to the 

Plan, situation, and arrangement of School-rooms. 

The efficiency of any system of intellectual education that 
may be formed, will in some measure depend upon the situation 
of school-rooms, and the ample accommodation afforded for the 



PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. 129 

scholastic exercises and amusements of the young. Every school- 
house should be erected in an airy and pleasant situation in the 
outskirts of a town or village, detached from other buildings, 
with an ample area around it ; — and, if possible, should have a 
commanding view of the variegated scenery both of the earth 
and of the heavens, — to the various objects of which the attention 
of the young should be occasionally directed, in order to lay a 
foundation for general knowledge, and for a rational contempla- 
tion of the works of the Almighty. Both the interior of the 
school, and the surrounding area, should be arranged and fitted 
up in such a manner, as to be conducive to the pleasure, the con- 
venience, and amusement of the young, so that the circum- 
stances connected with education may not only be associated 
with agreeable objects, but rendered subservient to the expan- 
sion of their minds, and to their progress in the path of know- 
ledge. 

The following is a rude sketch of what might be the plan and 
accommodations of a village school. The plot of ground allotted 
for the establishment, might be about 180 feet long, by 100 in 
breadth, or more or less according to circumstances. Nearly in 
the centre of this plot, the school-house might be erected, which 
should contain, at least, the following conveniences : — 1. A large 
room, or hall, for general teaching, about 40 feet long, by 30 in 
breadth, and 12 or 14 feet high. 2. Two rooms, about 18 feet 
long and 15 broad, into which certain classes may occasionally 
be sent, to attend to their scholastic exercises, under the inspection 
either of an assistant or of monitors. 3. Two closets, or presses, 
S T, off the large hall, about 12 feet, by 4 in breadth, for hold- 
ing portions of the apparatus, to be afterwards described, for 
illustrating the instructions communicated to the pupils. 4. At 
each end of the plot, or play-ground, should be two covered 
walks, A B, one for boys, and another for girls, in which the 
children may amuse themselves in the winter season, or during 
rainy weather; and, during winter, a fire might be kept in them, 
and a few forms placed for the convenience of those who come 
from a distance, who may partake of their luncheon, and enjoy 
themselves in comfort during the dinner hour. 5. The spaces 
C D E F mi<2,ht be laid out in plots for flowers, shrubs, and ever- 
greens, and a few forest trees. A portion of these plots, as G H, 
might be allotted for the classification of certain plants, as illus- 
trations of some of the principles of botany. They might be 
arranged into 24 compartments, as in the figure, each exhibiting 
a different class of plants. The remainder of the plot, particu- 
larly that portion of it immediately in froiU of the school-house, 



130 PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. 

i 







— -??. « » «» *i 
-., ■-■-v 



•J' / \ / \ > 

f / \ \ i / ..-- \ "J 
_^ej~ -1 







/ / 









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PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. 131 

might be smoothed and gravelled for a play-ground, and be ac- 
commodated with a few seats, or forms, and an apparatus for 
gymnastic exercises. 6. Behind the building, two water-closets, 
I K, should be erected, one for boys, and another for girls, sepa- 
rated by a wall or partition. The roof of the building should be 
flat, and paved with flag-stones, and surrounded with a parapet, 
three or four feet high. The pavement of the roof should be 
formed so as to have a slight slope towards one corner, so that 
the rain which falls upon it may be collected in a large barrel, 
or .cistern, placed underneath. An outside stair conducting to 
the roof may be erected at the posterior part of the building. 




This flat roof is intended as a stage, to which the pupils may be 
occasionally conducted, for the purpose of surveying the terres- 
trial landscape, of having their attention directed to the several 
objects of which it is composed, and of listening to descriptions 
of their nature, positions, properties, and aspects, — and likewise 
for the purpose of occasionally surveying the apparent motions 
of the stars, and of viewing the moon and planets through tele- 
scopes. 

Such are some of the external accommodations which every 
village school ought to possess. The plan here presented, is not 
intended as a model to be generally copied, but merely as ex- 
hibiting the requisite conveniences and accommodations — the plan 
of which may be varied at pleasure, according to the taste of 
architects, or the superintendents of education. The plot of 
ground should not, if possible, in any case, be much less than 
what is here specified ; but where ground can be easily procured, 
it may be enlarged to an indefinite extent. I do not hesitate to 



132 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 

suggest, that even two or three acres of land might, with pro- 
priety, be devoted to this object. In this case, it might be laid 
out in the form of an ornamental pleasure ground, with straight 
and serpentine walks, seals, bowers, and the various trees and 
shrubs peculiar to the climate. In these walks, or bowers, busts 
might be placed of such characters as Bacon, Newton, Boyle, 
Penn, Washington, Franklin^ Pascal, Howard, Clarkson, Wilber- 
force, and Venning, and particularly of those who in early life 
were distinguished for knowledge and virtue. At every short 
interval, sentences, expressing some important truth, or moral 
maxim, should be inscribed on posts erected for the purpose ; 
such as, God is everyichere 'present. — His Wisdom and Good- 
ness shine in all his loorks. — Thou shall love the Lord thy God 
with all thy heart. — Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 
— Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even 
so to them. — Love your enemies, do good to them that hate you,, 
and pray for them who despitefully use you. — The Lord is good 
to all ; lie maketh his sun to arise on the evil and on the good, 
and. sendeth rain on the just and the unjust. — God resisteth the 
proud, but bestoweth favour on the humble. — Lying lips are an 
abomination to the Lord. — The lip of truth shall be established 
for ever ; but lying lips are only for a moment. — To be virtu- 
ous, we must strive against many of our inclinations and de- 
sires. — The remembrance of virtuous actions is the most delight- 
ful consolation of old age. — An industrious and virtuous educa- 
tion of children is a better inheritance than a great estate. — 
The frst step to knowledge is to he sensible of our own ignorance 
and defects. — Wisdom is better than riches. — Virtue and good 
behaviour are naturally productive of happiness and good for- 
tune. — The present life is only an introductory scene to a future 
and eternal world; and, therefore, the knowledge and habits 
we now acquire should have a reference to that endless state 
which succeeds the present, 6fc. ^c. — Such moral truths and 
maxims, along with brief statements of scientific facts, should 
meet the eye of the young in every direction, so as to be quite 
familiar to their minds ; and they might occasionally be referred 
to, and explained and illustrated, in the discipline enforced, and 
the instructions communicated in school. 

Furniture of the Schocl. 

In fitting up the principal apartment of the school, it may be 
expedient that the seats be moveable, in order that they may bo 
occasionally arranged, so that the children may sit in one cam- 
pact body, with thc-ir faceb towarda their instructor. But every 



APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS. 133 

seat or form should be furnished with a back, or rail, and a board 
before, on which the pupil may lean his arm, and feel quite com- 
fortable and easy ; for children very soon feel cramped and un- 
easy, when sitting long on bare forms, without such conveniences. 
Every boy should likewise have a wooden peg, either before or 
behind him, for hanging his hat and satchel. The seats in the 
two smaller apartments may be fitted up to accommodate those - 
who are chiefly employed in writing, arithmetic, or geometry. 
In these, and various other arrangements, every minute circum- 
stance should be attended to, which may contribute to the con- 
venience and comfortable accommodation of the young, and to 
the maintenance of good order and regularity in all their move- 
ments. 

Apparatus and Museum. — The principal furniture of every 
seminary intended for intellectual instruction should consist of 
specimens of the various objects connected with Natural History, 
and an apparatus for illustrating the popular branches of Physical 
science. These objects may be arranged under the usual divisions 
of Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy ; or, in other words, 
Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals. Under the first division may 
be arranged specimens of such domestic animals as can easily be 
procured ; such as, the dog, the cat, the hare, the rabbit, the mole, 
the rat, the mouse, the bat, &c. — the peacock, the turkey, the 
partridge, the pigeon, the thrush, the linnet, the canary, the lark, 
the swallow, the goldfinch, the chaffinch, &c. — together with as 
many specimens of lizards, serpents, fishes, and insects, as can 
be most easily collected and preserved. Those foreign animals, 
such as the elephant, the camel, the lion, and the tiger, which 
cannot be directly exhibited, may be represented by coloured en- 
gravings. The leaves of different kinds of vegetables might be 
stuck on large sheets of drawing-paper, and occasionally exhibit- 
ed for the purpose of distinguishing the different trees or shrubs 
to which they belong — several rare exotic plants might be kept in 
flower-pots — and the several vegetable pots around the seminary 
would furnish various specimens, in their natural state, of which 
physiological and botanical descriptions might be given. Various 
fossils and mineral substances, which can easily be procured, 
may also be collected and arranged in classes, — such as, platina, 
silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, bismuth, zinc, nickel, man- 
ganese, with specimens of their ores — chrysolites, garnets, agates, 
corundums, jaspers — sulphur, carbon, bitumen, amber, caoutchouc, 
asphalt, charcoal — quartz, feltspar, hornblend, &c. — To these 
may be added various specimens of artificial objects and of sub- 

12 



134 APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS. 

stances used in manufactures, as hemp, flax, cotton, silk, wool, 
and the various fabrics into which they are wrought. 

The Apparatus may consist of such instruments as the follow- 
ing ; — an electrical machine, an air-pump, a barometer and ther- 
mometer, a magnetical apparatus, various glass tubes and phials, 
for hydrostatical, pneumatical and chemical experiments, a tele- 
scope, a compound and a solar, or an oxy-hydrogen microscope, 
a camera-obscura, concave and convex mirrors, a phantasmago- 
ria, a sundial, a planetarium, a terrestrial and celestial globe, 
with large planispheres of the heavens, — a burning lens or mir- 
ror, with various instruments of recreation on philosophical sub- 
jects, such as the optical paradox and deception, the diagonal 
opera-glass, the communicative mirror, the sensitive fishes, the 
sagacious swan, the cup of Tantalus, the fountain at command, 
&c. Models might also be procured of wind and water mills, 
steam-engines, diving-bells, common and forcing pumps, gasome- 
ters, and the different mechanical powers. 

In addition to the above, it would be requisite to procure sys- 
tematic sets of well-executed engravings, exhibiting a view of the 
most striking phenomena of nature and the processes of the arts, 
— such as, views of rivers, sea-coasts, islands, cities, towns, and 
villages, streets, squares, aqueducts, columns, arches, public 
buildings, rural landscapes, ranges of mountains, volcanoes, ice- 
bergs, basaltic columns, glaciers, caves, grottos, natural bridges — 
the operations of brewing, baking, spinning, weaving, pin-mak- 
ing, forging, glass-blowing, ship-building, &c. — in short, of every 
object, natural and artificial, which can convey to the mind a de- 
finite idea of the different parts which compose the landscape of 
the world, and the operations of human art. Coloured maps of 
the different portions of the globe, on a large scale, should like- 
wise accompany such exhibitions, in order that the positions of 
the countries, where the different objects are to be found, may be 
pointed out. These pictorial representations may be hung around 
the walls, or on posts fitted up for that purpose, in such numbers 
as the allotted spaces will conveniently contain. — The specimens 
of natural history may be arranged around the walls of the school 
in presses, with wire or glass doors, so that the greater part of 
them may be exposed to view ; and the apparatus and other arti- 
cles may be deposited, when not in use, in the two large presses 
or closets formerly mentioned. 

Although the various articles now alluded to could not be pro- 
cured all at once, yet they might gradually be increased, and a 
considerable variety of them would doubtless be obtained in the 
way of donations from the private museums of liberal and philan- 



NEW OPTICAL DIAGONAL MACHINE. 135 

throplc individuals in the vicinity around ; and many of the little 
urchins who attend the school would rejoice in being instrumental 
in adding whatever they could procure to augment the splendour 
and variety of the museum. 

There is one very simple instrument, not hitherto duly appre- 
ciated, which might be rendered subservient both to the amuse- 
ment and the instruction of the young ; and that is, the Optical 
Diagonal Machine^ for viewing perspective engravings. This 
instrument, as sold by opticians, consists of a pedestal, somewhat 
resembling a large mahogany candlestick, having a plain mirror 
and a convex lens moveable at the top. The print to be viewed 
is placed on a table, before the instrument, in an inverted position. 
But this form of the instrument generally produces but a very 
slender effect, owing partly to the small diameter of the lens com- 
monly used, and partly to the circumstance, that the engraving is 
generally visible to the eye, at the same time the observer is 
viewing its magnified image through the machine. To obviate 
these defects, about seventeen years ago, I fitted up a machine of 
this kind on another and more simple plan, of which the follow- 
ing is a brief description. It consists of the following parts : — 1. 
A box made of thin deal, 2 feet deep, 2 feet long, and 1 foot 
broad, open in front. 2. In the side opposite to the opening, and 
near the top, a circular hole, about 6 inches in diameter, is cut, 
into which a tube containing the lens is put, capable of being 
moved an inch or two backwards or forwards. The convex lens 
is 5^ inches diameter, and 20 inches focal distance, and its centre 
is about 20 inches above the bottom of the box. 3. Ther reflect- 
ing mirror — which is 12^ inches long and 8 inches broad, and 
which should be formed of the best English plate glass — the 
longest dimension being perpendicular to the horizon. This mir- 
ror is suspended, immediately before the lens, on two pieces of 
wood connected with a cross bar, which is capable of being 
moved backwards or forwards to its proper distance from the lens ; 
and the mirror itself moves on two pivots, like a common dress- 
ing-glass, so as to stand at any required angle. When the in- 
strument is properly adjusted, the mirror should stand at half a 
right angle to the horizon. The top of the box opens by means 
of a hinge, to afford a facility for adjusting the mirror. The per- 
spective views are placed on the bottom of the box, parallel with 
the horizon, and in an inverted position with respect to the eye of 
the observer. The engravings should be at least 17 inches long 
and 11 inches broad, exclusive of the margins, and coloured after 
nature. — This instrument, thus fitted up, is greatly superior to the 
one commonly in use, as nothing is seen but the magnified image 



136 



ENGRAVINGS FOR THE OPTICAL MACHINE. 



of the objects, and no conception can be formed of them to dis- 
tract the attention, till the observer actually looks through the in- 
strument. Every person who has looked through this instrument 
has at once admitted its superiority to those of the common con- 
struction, and many individuals have got similar machines fitted 
up after this pattern. It may be fitted up at an expense not ex- 
ceeding eighteen or twenty shillings ; that is, nine shillings for 
the lens, seven shillings for the mirror, and two or three shillings 
for the box. 

The following figures will convey some idea of ihis construc- 
tion of the instrument. Fig. 1. represents a profile of the ma- 
chine, one of the sides of the box being supposed to be removed. 
A is the mirror, standing at half a right angle to the lens and the 




C D 

picture, with its back turned to the eye. B is the lens, fixed 
either in a tube or in a hole cut out of the side of the box next 
the eye. C D is the bottom of the box, on which the perspec- 
tives are placed. E F is the top of the box, from which the mir- 
ror is suspended. Fig. 2. represents a view of the back of the 
box, or that part which is next the eye when the observer is view- 
ing the prints, in which L represents the lens by which the prints 
are magnified. . 

There is one glaring defect in the exhibitions made with this 
instrument, which has never yet been attempted to be remedied ; 
and that is, that in every landscape the rii{ht side of the view 
appears where the left should be, which presents a confused and 
unnatural view, particularly of those objects and scenes with 
which we are acquainted. This defect may be remedied by cut- 
ting out or etching the landscape on the copperplate — not reversed^ 
as is always done, but in its natural position j in which case, the 



SEMINARIES IN CITIES AND TOWNS. 137 

engravings, when thrown off, would be reversed, like tlie picture 
formed by a common camera-obscura. Such engravings, when 
used for the Optical Diagonal Machine, would represent objects 
exactly in their natural positions; and if the true perspective of a 
street, a large hall, or a landscape, be accurately delineated, the 
scene will appear almost as natural and interesting as if we were 
viewing it from the point whence the picture was taken. As 
there are thousands of perspectives engraven expressly for this 
machine, I would humbly suggest to engravers and print-sellers 
the propriety of having such engravings etched on the plan now 
proposed. The fineness of the engraving is of very little conse- 
quence in such views, provided the perspective has been accu- 
rately attended to ; but the colouring should be light and natural, 
and very different from the glaring and clumsy daubings which 
appear in most of the perspectives which are sold for the use of 
this machine. 

Such are some of the objects and external accomiuuuations 
which might be procured for every village school. Such a 
school would form a striking contrast to most of the schools 
which exist in our country, particularly those which are found in 
many of our cities and towns, pent up in narrow closes and lanes, 
in the midst of filth, noise and gloom, destitute of pure air, where 
the children are packed like hounds in a kennel, cramped in their 
movements, and can scarcely find a passage from one part of the 
school-room to another, and where no objects of delight arrest 
their curiosity and enliven their spirits. Instead of such scanty 
and wretched accommodations — which may be considered as so 
many juvenile prison-houses, to which the young are frequently 
driven by dint of force — we should thus have it in our power to 
introduce them into a kind of magnificent museum, where every 
object would excite curiosity and arrest attention. Instead of 
associating with scholastic exercises the ideas of tasks, stripes and 
imprisonment, we should thus present to their view a delightful 
avenue and portal to the Temple of Knowledge, which would 
excite a spirit of observation, rouse their intellectual energies, and 
produce a high degree of pleasure and enjoyment. And nothing 
can be of more importance to the best interests of the young, and 
to the cause of the universal diffusion of knowledge, than to strew 
the path of science with flowers of every hue, and to render all 
the early associations connected with it exhilarating and cheerful. 
The road which leads to knowledge, moral virtue, happiness, and 
the higher enjoyments of the life to come, ought undoubtedly to 
wear a bright and alluring aspect, and to be divested of every 
object which has the appearance of austerity or gloom. 

12* 



188 SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

In towns, a number of these schools might be connected toge- 
ther in one large square or building, surrounded with as extensive 
a space as can be procured, forming one grand seminary, where 
children of all ranks might associate without distinction in their 
amusements and scholastic exercises. The amusements and the 
exercises of such numerous groups of the young, both within and 
without doors, would form a lively and interesting spectacle to 
every philanthropist ; and public schools, when properly situated, 
and governed on Christian principles, so far from being a nui- 
sance to the neighbourhood, as they are generally considered, 
would constitute one of the best ornaments, and the'most delight- 
ful scenes, connected with general society. Where large towns 
diverge into extensive suburbs, a variety of distinct seminaries 
might be erected at proper distances from each other, to accom- 
modate the inhabitants of the adjacent district, so that the children 
would not require to go too great a distance from their homes. 

School-Books* 

There are few things of more importance in the arrangements 
connected with education than the judicious selection and compila- 
tion of the Books intended to be put into the hands of the young. 
I have already offered a few strictures on the inefficiency of the 
school-books which have been most generally in use in our bor- 
ough and parochial schools ; and although of late years several 
improved school-collections have been introduced, scarcely any 
have yet appeared completely adapted to an intellectual system 
of tuition. The following general principles ought to be recog- 
nised in the compilation of every class-book for the use of 
schools : — 

1. That the subjects introduced be level to the comprehension 
of those for whose use the book is intended. 

2. That every article it contains be calculated to convey some 
portion of useful knowledge. 

3. That the selections in general have a moral tendency, and 
that every thing that might foster a spirit of pride, avarice, ambi- 
tion or warfare, be carefully excluded. 

4. That moral and physical facts should form a prominent 
feature in such books, and mere fictions be entirely discarded. 

6. That the lessons be so constructed, that every sentiment 
and description may produce an accurate and well-defined idea 
in the minds of the young. 

These rules proceed on the assumption, that the communication 
of ideas — the elements of thought — and the formation of moral 
character, are the great and ultimate objects of education* 



DEFECTS OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 139 

In the first books put into the hands of children, the lessons 
should be so constructed that the leading ideas they contain^ or 
the objects they describe^ may be immediately pointed ovt, either 
by means of the specimens contained in the museum.^ by pictorial 
representations^ or by the objects around them in the scene of 
nature ; so that every word, or at least every description contained 
in the lesson, may be associated in the mind of the child with the 
idea of its objects. Hence the propriety, in the first instance, of 
restricting the descriptive lessons solely to sensible objects. It is 
through the medium of the senses that the elements of all our 
knowledge are derived. We perceive, in the first instance, a va- 
riety of objects which immediately surround us, and gradually 
become acquainted with some of their qualities. As we advance 
in life, and mingle in society, and make excursions from one 
place to another, the number of our perceptions is indefinitely 
increased. We have the power of presenting to the view of the 
mind the images or ideas of these objects at pleasure, even when 
the objects which first produced them are removed. Those ideas 
are nothing else than renewed representations of what we have 
at any time perceived or felt through the medium of the organs 
of sensation. Flaving received such impressions or ideas, the 
mind has the faculty of contemplating them at pleasure, whether 
their objects be present or absent — of combining them together, 
of compounding and decompounding them, and of modifying, 
comparing, and examining- them, in an infinite variety of lights ; 
by which means it is enabled to enlarge the objects of its percep- 
tion and contemplation, and to acquire an inexhaustible treasure 
of other ideas, distinct from the former, though necessarily result- 
ing from them. Such is the origin and progress of all our know- 
ledge — and thus the human mind pursues its course from simple 
perceptions and trains of ideas, and from one discovery and chain 
of reasoning to another, till it rises from the first dawnings of rea- 
son to the full blaze of intellectual light, and to the height of 
moral improvement. 

These considerations evidently point out the mode in which 
instruction ought to be communicated, and the objects towards 
which the youthful mind should, in the first instance, be directed 
— for want of attention to which, many of our school-books are 
nearly as inefficient for the purpose intended as if they had been, 
written in a foreign language. I have just now lying before me 
two initiatory books lately published, entitled, "First" and " Se- 
cond Books for Children," in which there is not a single sentence 
conveying the idea of a sentiment or fact, nor even a single word, 
that will produce an idea in the mind of a child — every page being 



140 LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 

completely occupied with such sounds as these — " gra, ere, dre, 
dro — gaff", puff, groff, sniff — gyve, gyre, gybe — baffle, socle, 
struggle," &c. &c. Such books can never be interesting to the 
young, and must present to their view nothing but a bleak and 
thorny path to the temple of knowledge. Nor will such vague 
sentences as the following, with which our primers abound, pro- 
duce a much better effect:—" My son, walk not in the way of 
bad men; for bad men ^o on in sin all the day. — Set thy heart 
on the right way, and mind the law of the Lord. — Do not break 
the laws of God, and shun the v/ays that lead to death," &e. 
Such sombre sentiments and exhortations, however sound the mo- 
rality they inculcate, can never produce a well-defined idea in 
the mind of a child, or excite to moral action, and consequently 
cannot have the effect of producing pleasing emotions and a taste 
for knowledge. — Every sentence of a child's lesson should con- 
vey to his mind a picture or representation of some object ; and 
it is quite possible to accomplish this end, by simplifying our de- 
scriptions, and selecting those sensible objects which are calcu- 
lated to attract attention, and which may be presented to the view. 
For example : — 

" The sun shines. — The sky is blue, when it is not covered with clouds. 
— The stars shine forth at night. — Snow is white. — Rain comes from the 
clouds. — Gold is yellow ; silver is white ; copper is red. — Lead is heavy ; 
cork is light ; coal is black. — Trees grow in the fields ; they have roots, 
branches and leaves. — Flowers grow in the fields and gardens ; some of 
them are red, some are white, some are yellow, others are blue. — Corn 
grows in the fields ; when it is ripe it is cut down, and ground into meal, 
and then baked into bread. — A dog has a head, two ears, four feet, and a 
tail. — A bird has a beak, two eyes, two wings, two legs, and a tail ; it is 
covered with feathers, it chirrups and sings, and flies through the air. — 
When we strike a small bell with a key, it sends forth a sound. — When we 
shut our eyes, all appears dark around us, and we can see nothing. — When 
we open our eyes, we can see the sky, the clouds, the fields, the trees, the 
houses ; and men, women, and children, walking along the road, or sitting 
in the school. — The sun rises in the east, and when he rises it is day ; when 
he sets in the west, it is night, and the stars appear in the sky. — The sun 
shines upon the trees, the houses, and the water, and every thing looks 
bright and beautiful when he shines upon it. — He shinps in all countries, 
over all the earth. — He is so bright, that we cannot look at him, but when 
he is covered with thin clouds. — If you take a piece of red or green glass, 
and hold it between your eye and the sun, you may look at him without 
hurting your eyes. — The sun gives us light and heat, and he is the most 
bright and glorious work of God that can be seen in the whole world," &c. 

Such simple lessons may be made to produce a well-defined 
idea in the mind of every child, by exhibiting to his view, at the 
moment he is reading, the very object which his lesson describes ; 



SUBJECTS OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 141 

and if the object is not present, it may be represented by an en- 
graving. Wiien his lesson states that " lead is heavy, and cork 
is light," a piece of cork and a piece of lead of the same size 
may be put into his hands, which will not only convince him of 
the fact, but will enable him afterwards to recognise these circum- 
stances. When he reads that " a bell, when struck by a piece 
of iron, produces a sound," the experiment may be exhibited be- 
fore him — which circumstances will have a powerful tendency to 
arrest his attention, and keep alive his interest in the subject of 
his lessons. 

The first class-books for schools should, therefore, be confined 
chiefly to descriptions of the appearances and qualities of such 
objects as may be exhibited to the senses of children, and instantly 
associated with the vocables of which their lessons consist. De- 
scriptions of the form and habits of animals, such as the dog, 
the cow, the ass, the mole, the elephant, the rein-deer, the cam- 
elopard, &c. — of vegetables, the parts of which they consist, 
the places where they grow, the manner in which they are pro- 
duced and cultivated, their fruits and flowers, and numberless 
varieties — of minerals, their various qualities, colours, and appear- 
ances, the places whence they are procured, the processes through 
which they pass, and the uses to which they are subservient in 
human life — might form one department of an initiatory class- 
book. Descriptions of the more obvious phenomena of nature, 
such as the apparent motions of the heavens, the rising and setting 
of the sun, the phases of the moon, the movements and aspect 
of the clouds, the phenomena of thunder and lightning, winds, 
rain, hail and snow ; the most striking objects which appear in 
towns, villages, and throughout the fields, on hills, mountains, 
valleys, rivers, and sea-coasts — might form another department 
of a school-book ; care being taken that the descriptions be suf- 
ficiently simple and vivid, and that long and hard words be as 
much as possible avoided. Descriptions of some of the innocent 
games and amusements of the young, accompanied with delinea- 
tions of some of them, might likewise be introduced. As a sup- 
plement or companion to a book of this kind, descriptions might 
be given of the particular objects connected with the locality in 
which the school is situated. In the first place, the school itself, 
with the various objects it contains ; the trees, flowers, and shrubs 
bery which surround it ; the roads, streets, lanes and walks, and 
the most remarkable public buildings it contains — might be par- 
ticularly described, and the descriptions accompanied with a plan 
or map of the place and its vicinity, and views of the most inte= 
resting objects, rural and architectural, which -are connected with 



142 MODE OF TEACHING MORALITY. 

it. Such descriptions would always be read with interest by the 
young, and would excite them to habits of observation and reflec- 
tion, besides affording them materials for, conversation in their 
social walks and intercourses. Children are always extremely 
fond of having their ideas of sensible objects enlarged, and view, 
with a great degree of interest and pleasure, the representations 
of them in well-executed engravings. Yet, strange to tell, when 
I attended school, it would have been considered as a crime to 
have looked into a book which contained engravings. I recollect 
of a boy having brought to school a copy of " The Three Hun- 
dred Animals," but it was carefully concealed from the teacher, 
and from most of the scholars, through fear of punishment. We 
were so anxious, however, to see the novel figures it contained — 
the magnified picture of the louse and the flea, the bee-hive, the 
peacock, the elephant, and the whale — that we gave pins, mar- 
bles, cherry-stones, gooseberries, and even sometimes a whole 
halfpenny, to the proprietor, for half an hour's perusal of it. 

Some persons will perhaps be disposed to object, that such les- 
sons as I now allude to are either trifling, or, at least, not so 
important as the moral lessons generally introduced into our ini- 
tiatory books. In reply to such an insinuation, it may be suffi- 
cient to say, that it can never be unimportant to convey a well- 
defined idea of any object worthy of being known, to the mind 
of a child, if it is admitted that the great object of education is to 
communicate the elements of thought. And as to producing 
moral impressions, every pious and intelligent teacher has an 
opportunity afforded of impressing the minds of his pupils with a 
sense of the Goodness, Omnipresence, and Agency of God, every 
time he is teaching a lesson which is descriptive of the works of 
nature. Morality can never be effectually taught to the young 
by vague exhortations, and general rules and maxims, — more 
especially when such instructions are not thoroughly understood. 
If we wish to impress the youthful mind with the odiousness of 
vice, and the excellence of virtue, we must fix upon particular 
actions, ^Pply to them moral rules or precepts, and illustrate, by 
familiar examples, their nature and tendency. Every teacher has 
daily an opportunity of directing the attention of his pupils to cer- 
tain actions, both good and bad, which appear in their general 
conduct ; and the judicious remarks he makes on the temper and 
dispositions manifested by particular individuals, will make a 
more definite and lasting impression upon the minds of the young 
than can be produced by the mere reading or repetition of moral 
maxims or general rules. And every child Avho has been regu- 
larly taught to understand every sentence he reads, and to exer- 



SUBJECTS OF A CLASS-BOOK. 143 

else his judgment Upon it, will undoubtedly be better prepared 
than others for forming a judgment of the propriety or impro- 
priety of certain moral actions, when they are explained to him 
with simplicity and clearness. In a more advanced stage of edu- 
cation, however, moral lessons, accompanied with examples of 
virtues and vices, may with great propriety be introduced. 

Some may likewise be disposed to inquire whether I intend to 
set aside exercises on the powers of the letters and the elementary 
sounds. Although I do not attach so mucli importance to such 
exercises as has generally been done, yet I would not altogether 
set them aside. Lists of monosyllables, exemplifying the long 
and short sounds of the vowels, and the pronunciation peculiar to 
certain combinations of the consonants, might be pasted upon 
cards, and hung up in view of the different classes ; on which 
they might be occasionally exercised, rather as a kind of inter- 
lude or amusement than as a serious task. But it appears quite 
preposterous to confine a child for four or five months to the pro- 
nunciation of mere sounds, to which no ideas are attached. And, 
from a good deal of experience, I am convinced that the true ppo- 
nunciation of words is to be acquired more from reading interest- 
ing lessons, and from the occasional remarks of the teacher on 
particular sounds as they occur, than by long and tedious exer- 
cises on the orthography of the language. 

In a more advanced stage of education, after the pupil has read 
two or three small volumes consisting of such easy descriptive 
pieces as those alluded to above, a volume consisting of selections 
of a higher order may be put into his hands. So early as the 
year 1809, I had formed, and partly executed, the plan of a 
volume of this description, calculated to excite the attention of the 
young, to convey real knowledge to their minds, and to render 
the exercise of reading pleasant and profitable. In some papers 
connected with this projected work, I find the following " General 
outline of Contents :" — 

1. Short and familiar lessons. 2. JVarratives of real occurrences and 
facts. 3. Juvenile Biography — comprising anecdotes and lives of young 
persons who had made early progress in knowledge : early life of Sir I. 
Newton, of Ferguson the astronomer, of Pascal, Gassendi, Grotius, Crich- 
ton, Horrox, Baratiere, &c. &c. 4. Selectiojis from Sacred History : His- 
tory of the creation and fall of man — of the deluge — of the destruction of 
Sodom — of the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Samuel 
— of the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, and the leading events 
which befel them in the wilderness and in Canaan — of the life and transla- 
tion of Elijah — of the deliverances of Jonah, Daniel, Shadrach, Meshech, 
and Abednego ; Paul, Peter, &c. — of the circumstances which attended the 
birth, transfiguration, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ, 
and the preaching of the Apostles — with illustrative remarks and observa- 



144 SUBJECTS OF A CLASS-BOOK. 

tions, a map of the land of Judca, plans of the tabernacle and temple, and 
figures of the sacred utensils and vestments used in the Jewish worship. 
5. Descriptions of objects connected xvith JVatural History and JSTatural 
Philosophy : Forms, habits, and instincts of animals, with anecdotes ; JVa- 
tural curiosities — such as basaltic columns, boiling springs, icebergs, gla- 
ciers, volcanoes, whirlpools, natural bridges, subterraneous caverns, Banian 
tree, &c. ; Brief description of the parts and functions of the human body — 
the organs of sense, and the different kinds of knowledge they communicate. 
Phenomena of JVature in the atinosphere and the heavens : Properties of 
air — weight and pressure of the atmosphere, with descriptions of a few sim- 
ple illustrative experiments; Descriptions of thunder-storms, luminous and 
fiery meteors, the aurora-borealis, the clouds the rainbow, the ignis-fatuus, 
rain, hail, dew, waterspouts, hurricanes, sounds, and echoes ; Descriptions 
of the mechanical powers — of electrical, magnetical, and optical instruments 
— of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies — of the more interesting 
phenomena connected with the earth, and the other bodies which compose 
the solar system, &c. 6. Illustrations and descriptions of certain arts 
and trades : Pin-making, weaving, printing, paper-making, glass-blowing, 
&c. 7. Useful hints on various subjects : On taking care of books — cau- 
tions respecting the preservation of health — the dangers arising from fire, 
confined air, noxious gases — the prevention of accidents and infectious dis- 
eases — rules for the promotion of order, cleanliness, and activity ; for cook- 
ing victuals, eradicating stains, nursing children, washing, dressing, laying 
out garden plots, and for promoting domestic economy — characteristics of 
poisonous plants, cautions in relation to unripe fruits, &c. &c. 8. Short 
moral maxims, pithy sayings, and rules for the general regulation of con- 
duct. 9. Dialogues : " The little Philosopher," " The King and the Mil- 
ler," &c. 10. Customs and manners of nations. Sketch of Geography, 
— descriptions of cities, towns, and remarkable places. 11. Entertaining 
experiments magnetical, electrical, pneumatical, galvanic, mechanical, 
chemical, &c. 12. Juvenile amusements : flying the kite, fives, peg-top, 
swinging, bathing, &c. with cautionary maxims. 13. Select Poetry, con- 
sisting only of pieces interesting to the young, and level to their capacity. 
14. Lessons in ivritten characters, for habituating children to read manu- 
scripts and epistolary correspondence. 15. List of natyxes and qualities 
of natural and artificial objects, as exercises in spelling; during which, 
short descriptions might be given of the nature and properties of the dif- 
ferent objects whose names are proposed as spelling-exercises. 1 6. lAst of 
Greek and Latin primitives and prepositions, with examples of their 
meaning, and the effect of their composition in English words. 17. Defini- 
tions of scientific terms, and of the more difficult words which occur in the 
lessons. 18. Tables of money, -weights, and measures, \\'\ih. illustrations 
of the value of coins, the capacity of measures, linear dimensions, &c. 
19. A general set of queries, referring to some of the principal subjects 
described in the lessons. * 

Such was the outline of a class-book which was intended to be 
published six-and-twenty years ago. One peculiarity by which 
it was intended to be distinguished, was — that a set of questions 
without answers, bearing on every particular object and circvm- 
stance detailed, was to be appended to each lesson, for exercis- 



QUALITIES OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 145 

ing the attention and Judgment of the pvpil, previous to his 
being examined on the subject. The various subjects introduced 
were intended to be partly original composition, partly compila- 
tions, and partly selections, abridged, modified, or altered, to suit 
the object in view. Fables and fictitious stories were to be en- 
tirely discarded, and the leading facts to be illustrated by engrav- 
ings. After composing a preface or introduction, showing the 
utility of such a work, and obviating objections that might be 
made to its plan, and having proceeded a certain length in its 
compilation, I was induced to lay aside the design, in consequence 
of the apathy and indifference of most of the teachers I conversed 
with on the subject. Some of them who stood high on the ranks 
of city and parochial schoolmasters told me plainly, that they 
considered it as no part of their duty to teach their pupils any 
thing but reading or pronunciation, and that if their parents 
wished them to understand what they read, they might teach 
them at home. 

Such a school-book is still a desideratum, notwithstrndmg some 
improvements which have lately been made in school-collections. 
AVhether it would be expedient to publish such a work at the 
present time, the public must determine. If properly executed, 
it would require a considerable degree of labour and research, a 
discriminating judgment, a fiimiliar acquaintance with the tastes 
and dispositions of the young, and a talent for simplifying de- 
scriptions, and rendering them perspicuous to a youthful under- 
standing. Such a book could not be constructed either by the 
scissors, or by merely copying or abridging pieces from various 
authors ; but by entering thoroughly into the spirit of every sijb- 
ject, and modifying it in such a manner as to interest the affec- 
tions, and to convey well-defined ideas to the minds of those for 
whose improvement it is intended. The formation of the ques- 
tions on each lesson would require a considerable share of judg- 
ment and discrimination, so as to render them perspicuous and 
specific. Most of the questions of this kind which have been at- 
tempted in certain school-books, are so general and vague, that 
they serve no useful purpose either to teacher or scholar, and are 
frequently so worded and arranged, that a pupil might find out 
the answers without understanding them or exercising his own 
judgment. It is, unquestionably, an eligible plan, in every de- 
partment of learning, to have sets of questions without answers, 
bearing on every branch of study. Such questions tend to excite 
the curiosity of the pupil, to exercise his judgment, and to arrest 
his attention to the subject ; and the finding out of the proper 
answers affords him a certain degree of pleasure. They are also 

13 



146 INTELLECTUAL CArAClTY OF CHILDREN. 

of Utility to the teacher, and may suggest to him numerous other 
subordinate questions connected with the subject. The old plan 
of constructing books by way of " Question and Ansiver,''^ and 
causing the vocables of the different answers to be committed to 
memory without being understood, is too absurd to require a mo- 
ment's consideration. 

It will be admitted, I presume, by every intelligent person, that 
a class-book, judiciously arranged and executed, and comprising 
such subjects as above stated, would be far more interesting to 
the young, and calculated*to convey to their minds a much greater 
portion of useful information, than all the " Beauties of eminent 
Writers," "Speeches in the Roman Senate," "English Readers," 
" Tyro's Guides," and " Oratorical Class-books," which have 
been so Ions: in use in our English schools. Such a book should 
contain hints and sketches of every thing that has a tendency to 
expand the intellectual views, and which may be applied to use- 
ful practical purposes in the several departments of human life, 
and be completely purified from every thing that might produce 
national prejudice and partiality, the spirit of contention and war- 
fare, and the indulgence of selfish and malignant afTections — in 
short, a book which might be read with pleasure by the youncr, 
who understood its language, in every nation of the world. In 
the hands of a judicious teacher, every idea it contained might be 
communicated to the understandings of the pupils; and, as early 
impressions are the most lasting', the sentiments conveyed, and 
the impressions thus made upon the mind, could not fail to be of 
incalculable service to them throughout the whole course of their 
lives. The foundation of useful knowledge would be laid, and a 
taste for intellectual pleasures induced, which v. juld stimulate 
them to still higher pursuits and investigations as they advanced 
in life. — Nor need we have the least fear that children, at an early 
age, would be incapable of acquiring such knowledge as that to 
which I allude. If they have not hitherto acquired it, it is because 
such knowledge as they were capable of acquiring has seldom 
been judiciously presented before them. We have compelled them 
to "feed upon ashes" — we have offered them " scorpions" instead 
of " eggs," and " stones" instead of " bread ;" and because they 
were unable to masticate and digest such substances, we have 
deprived them of wholesome and nutritious food, and wondered 
why they have not been strengthened and invigorated. When 
truth is simplified by familiar illustrations taken from objects 
with which they are acquainted, and confirmed by appeals to their 
senses, they imbibe it with avidity, and frequently retain the im- 
pressions thus made to the latest period of their existence. The 



SCIETTTIFIC CLASS-BOOKS. 147 

celebrated Fenolon lias observed, that "Before they are thought 
capable of recei/ing any instruction, or the least pains taken with 
them, they learn a language. Many children at four years of 
age can speak their mother tongue, though not with the same 
accuracy or grammatical precision, yet with greater readiness and 
fulness than most scholars do a foreign language after the study 
of a whole life." This circumstance certainly indicates no small 
degree of intellectual energy and acumen. And to this I may 
add, that they discover their intellectual powers by connecting the 
idea with the sign of it, and acquire many notions of good and 
evil, right and wrong, in that early period of life. Such are their 
powers of discrimination, that they can distinguish the characters 
and dispositions of those with whom they associate, and frequent- 
ly know the tempers and weaknesses of their parents much better 
than the parents know theirs, and are dextrous enough to avail 
themselves of that knowledge in order to obtain their desires and 
gratify their humours. 

A third series of school-books might consist of popular sys- 
tems of the sciences, and descriptions in relation to the mechani- 
cal and liberal arts. The fundamental principles and the most 
interesting facts connected with botany, mineralogy, zoology, geo- 
graphy, geology, geometry, astronomy, experimental philosophy, 
and chemistry — and likewise those connected with the arts of 
weaving, book-binding, printing, clock and watch making, brass- 
founding, carpentry, &c. — might be familiarly detailed, and illus- 
trated with as many plans and engravings as the different sub- 
jects might require. The general knowledge of the sciences, 
which the pupil would acquire from such compilations, would pre- 
pare him for afterwards entering on the study of particular sciences, 
when their principles and applications would be illustrated in more 
minute detail. The sketches of the different arts and trades 
would unfold to him some of the leading processes and operations 
peculiar to the several mechanical employments, and lead him to 
determine which of these would be most congenial to his own 
taste and genius. — In compiling such sketches of the sciences and 
arts, a considerable degree of knowledge, taste, and discrimina- 
tion, would be requisite. Every thing that is intricate or abstruse, 
or not level to the comprehension of young people from the age 
of ten to the age of fourteen years, should be omitted. Vivid and 
familiar descriptions of facts and scenery, details of interesting 
experiments, and engravings of natural and artificial objects, 
should accompa' y the explanations of the fundamental pi'inciples 
of the dilTerent sciences. In short, every thing should be intro- 
duced which can be illustrated by sensible objects, and every 



148 OBJECTS or III6T0KY. 

thing discarded which ihc gonscs cannot easily appreciate. Merc 
skeletons of the sciences would be quite uninteresting, and would 
produce no good eflcct. If any particular science could not be 
comprehensively illustrated in the space allotted for its details, a 
selection of its more prominent and popular departments might 
be substituted, which would be quite sufficient for communicating 
a general view of the subject, and inducing a taste for its further 
prosecution at a future period — which is all that is requisite to be 
aimed at in the first exhibitions of science to the youthful mind. 

Another class of school-books might be chiefly Historical. 
These should comprise a lucid and comprehensive view of the 
leading events which have happened from the creation to the 
present time, omitting those details which would either be impro- 
per to be exhibited, or which might prove uninteresting to the 
young. As a supplement to such a work, a more detailed history 
might be given of the particular nation or country in which the 
school is situated. — In compiling such historical works, great 
caution is requisite that no scenes be exhibited, and no sentiments 
inculcated, that would pollute the minds of the young, or foster 
malignant affections. Many of our historians detail the convul- 
sions of nations, and the horrid scenes of devastation and carnage, 
with a revolting degree of apathy, without interweaving any re- 
flections tending to show the folly and wickedness of war, and to 
denounce those malignant passions from which it springs. Nay, 
we frequently find the writings of historians abounding with 
panegyrics on pul>lic robbers and desperadoes, encomiums on 
war and on warriors, and designating the worst enemies of the 
human race as patj'iots and illustrious heroes. Hence it has hap- 
pened, that the study of history, instead of leading the mind to 
contemplate the character of the Moral Governor of the world, 
and the retributions of his providence, and to mourn over the 
malevolent passions and the depravity of man — lias not unfrc- 
quenlly tended to excite desires after the acquisition of false 
glory, and ,to cherish a spirit of contention and warfare, — the 
eflects of which are visible, even at the present moment, in the 
ambitious projects which are carrying forward by haughty des- 
pots and their obsequious ministers, and in the devastations which 
are committing, and the contests which are taking place, in almost 
every region of the globe. If we wish to counteract the efiects 
of pngan maxims and morality, and to imbue the minds of our 
youth with Christum principles and feelings, we must carefully 
guard against the influence of such antichristian sentiments. The 
history of all nations ought to be considered, not merely as the 
exploits of kings and heroes, but as the History of the providcn- 



OMJJ-JCTS OF IlISTORr. 149 

Hal dispensations of the Almighty towards tlio human race, and 
the history of the moral character of mankind. We should 
study it, not merely, or chiefly, for the purpose of admiring and 
imitating the exploits of those who have been extolled as illustri- 
ous characters, (for there are few of them whose deeds deserve 
our imitation) — but for expanding our views of the character and 
moral government of the Ruler of the Universe — for confirming 
the representations given in the Scriptures of the depravity of 
man — and for exciting an abhorrence of those lawless passions 
and deeds of injustice, which have covered the earth with carnage 
and desolation, and entailed misery upon the race of man. If we 
wish to study patterns of moral virtue worthy of imitation, we 
have the example of Jesus Christ set before us, as the pattern of 
every excellence, /' who was holy, harmless, and undefiled," — 
" who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth ; who, 
when he was reviled, reviled not again ; when he suffered he 
threatened not, but committed his cause to him who judgeth 
righteously." We have likewise the examples of his holy pro- 
phets and apostles, men as far superior in their moral principles 
and conduct to the most distinguished sages of Greece and Rome, 
as the Christian religion is superior to all the systems of theology 
in the pagan world. — In compiling histories for the young, the 
historian ought, therefore, to pause at certain periods and events, 
and direct the attention of his readers to what is moral or immoral 
in the actions detailed, to what is worthy of being approved or 
condemned in the scenes described, as determined by the princi- 
ples and rules of Christianity. He should direct the attention of 
the young to the scenes of horror which a spirit of ambition and 
revenge has created, to the malignant passions it has engendered, 
and to its contrariety to the spirit of true religion and the best in- 
terests of man. He should lead them to remark the justice and 
long-suffering of the Governor of the world — the retributions of 
his providence in the case of nations and individuals — the accom- 
plishment of Divine predictions — and the evidences which the 
records of history afford, that man is no longer in a paradisiacal 
condition, but has fallen from his high estate. In short, he should 
direct their views to the means by which the spirit of warfare may 
be counteracted and destroyed, — to the happy scenes which would 
be realized were a spirit of philantrophy to reign triumphant, — 
and to that glorious era, foretold by ancient prophets, when the 
nations " shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their 
spears into pru-ning-hooks, and learn the art of war no more." 
Were history studied in connection with such views and instruc- 
tions, — instead of fostering malignant passions — it might becom? 

13* 



150 ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. 

a handmaid to science and rdioion, and be rendered subservient 
for directing the mind to the Great Ruler of the nations, and the 
plans of his moral government, and for stimulating the exercise 
of those benevolent affections by which the tribes of mankind may- 
be united in harmony, and the world restored to tranquillity and 
repose. 

All the class-books now described should be embellished with 
engravings, wherever they appear requisite for illustrating the 
descriptions contained in the text. The subjects of such engra- 
vings should not only be accurately delineated, but delicately 
coloured after nature, so as to convey, as nearly as possible, a 
correct and vivid impression of the objects intended to be repre- 
sented. Nothing is more pleasing and gratifying to the young, 
than accurate engravings of the subjects about which they read, 
and nothing has a greater tendency to convey well-defined ideas 
of those objects v/hich are not present to the senses, and to impress 
them indelibly upon the imagination. But we have hitherto had 
no school-books embellished with such engravings Jts those to 
which I allude. The expense of such books might probably be 
objected to, as an argument against their introduction. But if the 
great end of education be carefully kept in view, and the import- 
ance of conveying clear and comprehensive ideas to the rising 
generation be duly weighed, no considerations of expense ought 
to deter us from the execution of any plan by which instruction 
in the elements of thought may be rendered delightful and effi- 
cient. Society, if once aroused to consider the importance of an 
enlightened education, would find no difficulty in defraying every 
expense connected with its arrangements. If such books w ere in 
universal request, and, consequently, many thousands of them 
thrown off at one impression, they might be afforded at a price 
very little higher than that of the paltry and inefficient class-books 
which have been so long in use in our scholastic establishments. 

The series of books now described should be accompanied with 
dictionaries, and other books of reference, for obtaining definitions 
of words and descriptions of the objects of nature and the terms 
of science and art. These dictionaries, along with clear defini- 
tions of English words and synonymes, should contain short defi- 
nitions of Latin, Greek, and French primitives and phrases, par- 
ticularly those which have been adopted into our language, and 
which, in composition, modify the meaning of many of our own 
words. The Latin and Greek prepositions should be explained, 
and their force in the composition of English words, and in the 
terms of art and science, particularly illustrated. Portable cyclo- 
pedias or technological dictionaries, with numerous illustrative 



KXGLISII READING. 151 

cuts, such as Crabi)'s " Dictionary of General Knowledge," would 
likewise be highly requisite for the occasional use of the higher 
or primary classes, in all our schools. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Method of Teaching, and the Departments of Knowledge which 
should be taught in every Seminary, 

The teacher being understood to have a school furnished with 
the accommodations, museum, and apparatus formerly described, 
and with a series of books adapted to intellectual instruction — I 
shall now offer a few hints on the mode in which the several de- 
partments of instruction might be conducted. 

Section I. — English Reading. 

In throwing out a few hints on this department, I shall take it 
for granted that the pupils have acquired a knowledge of the 
alphabet, in the manner in which it is generally taught in infant 
schools, and that they are qualified to read, with a certain degree 
of ease, a few short lessons, consisting of words of one or two 
syllables. Let us suppose, for example, such a lesson as the 
following, on the general nature and qualities of certain objects, 
to be the subject of attention. 

1. A bell gives a brisk sound when we strike it with a key, or with a 
stone, or with a large nail. If we strike an egg-cup made of wood, or if 
we strike a board or the table with a key, none of these things will give 
such a sound. A wine-glass will also pi-oduce a pretty brisk sound ; but 
if we strike it hard with a nail or a stone, it will break. We hear every 
sound by means of our ears, which God had formed and placed on each 
side of our heads, that we might listen to our teachers, and be able to talk 
with one another. — 2. The light which flows from the sun consists of seven 
colours ; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The earth is 
spread over with most of these colours ; the fields appear spread over with 
green, some parts with a light green, and some parts with a dark green 
colour. Fir trees and some poplar trees are dark green, corn and grass are 
of a light green colour. A rose is red ; some roses are white. The crow- 
foot, the cowslip, the crocus, and the wall-flower, are yellow. Furze and 
broom have also pretty yellow flowers. The blue-bottle flower, and some 
hyacynths, are of a blue colour. Some daisies are red, some are white, and 
some have two or three colours. The corn in the fields, the grass in the 
meadows, and the leaves of trees, are green. — 3. Iron is heavy, copper iis 
heavier, lead is heaviest. Lead will sink, if you throw it into a bason of 
water, but a cork will swim on the top of the water. A stone will sink in 
water, but a piece of light wood will swim ; and if you push the wood 
down with your hand to the bottom of the bason, it will quickly rise again 



152 LESSORS FOK JUVENILE CLASSES. 

to the top. — 4. The sun shines from the heavens, and gives us light all the 
day. He is so bright that we can scarcely look up to him. If we were to 
look straight towards the sun, it would dazzle our eyes. But if we take 
a piece of glass that is red or dark green, or a glass that is covered all over 
with the smoke of a candle, we may look through this glass to the sun 
without dazzling our eyes. The sun sometimes shines very bright, and 
sometimes he is covered with clouds. The sun is giving us light at this 
moment, but we cannot see him. Can any of you tell the reason why the 
sun is not seen jusTnow when he is giving us light'? What hides him 
from our sight ? The sky sometimes appears clear, like a large blue dome 
or half-globe, and sometimes it is all over covered with dark clouds. When 
the sun rises in the east, that part of the sky is often covered with bright 
red and yellow clouds ; and when he sets in the evening in the west, the 
same kind of clouds are sometimes seen. God made the sun, the moon, 
and the stars ; he also made the fields, the trees, and the corn ; he formed 
our bodies and our souls ; he gave us eyes to see with, ears, that we might 
hear, hands to handle with, feet to walk with, and he preserves us every 
moment. He is present with us in this place, and sees all that we do, 
though we cannot see him. Let us give thanks to God, for he is good, and 
let us do what he commands. 

None, I presume, will be disposed to deny, that children of five 
years of age, who have been previously accustonned to observe 
the facts around them, may easily be made, under the guidance 
of an intelligent teacher, to understand every idea contained in 
such lessons as the above. The lesson should first be distinctly 
and deliberately read over by the class two or three times, and 
then illustrated by objects and experiments. Lesson 1 , may be 
illustrated by a small hand-bell, a key, a wine-glass, and a piece 
of wood ; and some of the children might be permitted to try 
the experiments, which would gratify their natural curiosity, and 
excite an interest in the subject of their lesson — it being always 
understood that the teacher accompanies such experiments with 
familiar explanations and remarks. — For illustrating Lesson 2, it 
would be requisite to have a large white pasteboard painted with 
the seven primary colours of light, so that the pupils might be 
exercised upon it, in naming and distinguishing the different 
colours. The objects whose colours are stated might be shown 
them ; or if any of these objects are not at hand, they may be 
exhibited by coloured engravings. — To illustrate Lesson 3, a pair 
of scales, a bason of water, a piece of cork, and three pieces of 
iron, copper, and lead, of equal size, will be required, and then 
the experiment of weighing the pieces, and plunging them into 
the water, may be exhibited to the class. When explaining Les- 
son 4, a piece of stained or smoked glass may be put into the 
hands of the pupils, when the sun is visible, that each of them 
may try the experiment. The questions proposed in this lesson, 
which are not answered, may serve to exercise the judgment of 



LESSONS FOR JUVENILE CLASSES. 



153 



the pupils. They are understood to refer to the circumstance of 
a cloudy day. Various simple questions of this description should 
be embodied in the lessons, to give scope to youthful judgment 
and ingenuity. The latter part of this lesson might afford an 
opportunity to the teacher of impressing the minds of the class 
with a sense of the presence, goodness, and universal agency, of 
the ci'eator. It will scarcely be denied, that in this way instruc- 
tion may be blended with amusement, and that a considerable 
variety of useful knowledge might be gradually imparted to the 
juvenile mind. 

Descriptions of animals would form another interesting class 
of lessons for the young, as in the following example : — 

The Peacock. 




The Peacock is the most beautiful bird in the world. Its beauty excels 
that of all other animals. Its bill is about two inches long, and is of a 
brown colour. Its head and neck, and part of its breast, are of a dark blue 
colour. On the top of its head there is a tuft of pretty green feathers, 
which adds to its beauty. Its neck is long and slender, and its back of a 
whitish grey colour, spotted with black. But the plumage and tail of this 
splendid bird are the most beautiful parts of its body. They are adorned 
with colours so rich and various, that no human art can make any thing 
like them. When this bird walks in the sunshine, every moment produces 
a thousand shades of colouring, which are beautiful and ever varying. 
These fine colours exceed the lustre of the finest flowers of the fields and 
gardens. But, like the flowers, they fade every j^ear, and the feathers drop 
from their bodies, and are again renewed every spring. The length of the 
peacock, from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, is about three feet 
eight inciu's. Some of its longest feathers are four feet long. This bird 
appears huughtj arul prou-l. and. loves to display its iine colours to those 



154 EXPEEIMENTAL LESSORS. 

who are looking on, like those little boys and girls who are prouJ of their 
line clothes. The peacock perches upon high places, and lives upon barley 
and other kinds of grain. Its beautiful plumage does not appear before it 
is nearly three years old. When it drops its fine feathers in the time of 
harvest, it does not like to be seen, but seeks to hide itself in some gloomy 
place. Though the peacock is very beautiful, it utters a very harsh and 
disgusting cry. For whole hours it will repeat the cry of Eko, eko, eko, 
with the most hideous noise. It cannot sing a pleasant song, like the linnet 
and the blackbird. It is so wicked that it will scarcely live with any other 
bird, except the pigeon ; and it tears and spoils every thing it gets a hold 
of with its bill. This bird was first brought from a far distant country, 
from the East Indies, and it lives to the age of twenty-five years. Little 
boys and girls, be not like the peacock, proud and vain, on account of your 
beauty and your fine clothes ; for humility and goodness are always to be 
preferred to beauty. 

In teaching this and similar lessons, a stuffed specimen of the 
animal described should be placed on a table opposite the class, 
and its different parts and colours pointed out ; but if a specimen 
is not at hand, a coloured engraving should be exhibited, either in 
the class-book, or on a large sheet pasted on a pasteboard. The 
terms, tuft, plumage hill, perching, &c. should be explained by 
a reference to the figure or specimen, and the length of a yard, 
foot and inch, or any number of these combined, should be dis- 
tinctly explained and exhibited, by means of rods of different 
lengths. — There is another class of lessons for the juvenile 
classes, which might consist chiefly of descriptions and exhU 
hilions of entertaining experiments. For example — 

The Sagacious Stoan. 

There is a nice little amusing toy which is sold in some toy-shops, called 
the Sagacious Swan. This swan is made of very thin tin-plate, or other 
light substance, and is hollow within. Near its mouth, in the inside, is 
fixed a small magnet, or load-stone. The swan is placed in a large bason 
full of water, in which it swims. A small rod of metal about five or six 
inches loni^, with a piece of bread fastened to one end of it, is held out to 
the swan, at the. distance of an inch or two from its mouth. The swan 
then moves forward after the rod, as if it wished to take hold of the piece 
of bread. If you move the rod gently from the swan, it will swim after it 
all round the bason, and from one side of it to another, as if it were a living 
swan swimming after its foo<l. But if you present the other end of the 
rod to the swan, it will swim backwards, and try to avoid it, as if you were 
wishing to mock or insult it. — The rod on which the piece of bread is fas- 
tened is also a loadstone. A loadstone attracts or draws to it needles, and 
any small bits of iron or steel that are near it. Every loadstone has two 
ends, which are called its north and south poles. When the north pole of 
one loadstone is brought near to the south pole of another, they will attract 
each other. But when the north pole of one is brought near to the north 
pole of another, they will repel or move from each other. When a small 
loadstone is placed on a piece of cork or light wood, and made to swim in 



KXrER13IKNTAL LKS30XS. 155 

a bason of water, it will^lurn itself round, till it point nearly north and 
south. — The compass which directs sailors in their course along the sea, 
consists of a small loadstone, which moves upon a pivot. It shows them 
how to steer to the East and the West, to the North and the South. By 
means of this small bit of loadstone, they can find their way over great 
seas and oceans, to the East Indies and America, and round the whole 
world. God created the loadstone for this purpose ; and if we had never 
known its properties, we should never have been able to bring tea from 
China, or sugar from the West Indies, or to send Bibles to the people that 
dwell in the far-distant isles of the sea. 

This lesson would of course require to be illustrated by the 
philosophical toy which it describes. This toy could be easily 
constructed by any ingenious mechanic, or it may be purchased 
for about live or six shillings. The experiment of placing a 
small magnet upon a piece of cork, and suspending it on the 
water, to show how it fixes itself north and south, might also be 
exhibited ; and by taking another magnet, and suspending it in 
the same manner opposite to the first, the attraction and repulsion 
of the different poles of the two magnets might be shown, which 
would explain the phenomena of the sagacious swan. The power 
of the magnet In attracting needles, small keys, penknives, &c. 
might at the same time be shown. A pocket-compass might 
likewise bo exhibited, and its use described ; and the attractive 
and repulsive powers of the magnet shown, by presenting it 
alternately to the north and south poles of the compass-needle. 
It might also be shown, that the magnetic power passes through 
interposing substances, by placing a board between the pocket- 
compass and the magnet, and causing the pupils to observe, that 
the needle is made to turn round, by the influence of the magnet 
transmitted through the board. — This is only one example, out 
of a hundred that might be produced, of rendering entertaining 
experiments interesting and instructive to children ; and when 
truths are, in this way, associated with sensible representations 
and experiments, they are seldom erased from their minds to the 
latest periods of their existence. 

In the next stage of English reading, the pupil might enter on 
the perusal of a volume containing lessons on subjects of a higher 
order, such as those formerly described — which might be substi- 
tuted in the place of our common school collections. The lessons 
in such a volume should be distinguished for the perspicuity and 
neatness of their style, although specimens of what is termed 
elegance and fine writing may be occasionally introduced. The 
following may serve as a specimen of the manner in which such 
lessons may be constructed : — 



156 LESSON ON VOLCANOES. 

Description of Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes are mountains, generally of a large size, from the summits of 
which issue fire and smoke. On the top of these mountains there is a vagt 
opening called the Crater, sometimes two or three miles in circumference, 
reaching from their summits to an immeasurable depth in the bowels of the 
earth. From these dreadful openings are frequently thrown up to an im- 
njense height, torrents of fire and smoke, clouds of ashes and cinders, and 
red-hot stones, together with torrents of melted lava, which roll down the 
declivity of the mountain like an immense flaming river. These alarming 
appearances are frequently accompanied with thunders, lightnings, darkness, 
quakings of the earth, and hoiTid subterraneous sounds, producing the most 
terrible devastations through all the sun-ounding country. — Previous to aii 
eruption, the smoke, which is continually ascending from the crater, increases 
and shoots up to an immense height; forked lightning issues from the as- 
cending column ; showers of ashes are thrown to the distance of forty or 
fifty miles ; volleys of red-hot stones are discharged to a great height in the 
air ; the sky appears thick and dark, the luminaries of heaven disappear. 
When these alarming phenomena have continued for some time, the lavo, 
or stream of melted minerals, begins to make its appearance, either boiling 
over the top, or forcing its way through the side of the mountain. This 
fiery deluge runs down the declivity of the mountain, forming a dismal 
flaming stream, sometimes 14 miles long, 6 miles broad, and 200 feet deep. 
In its course it destroys orchards, vineyards, corn-fields, and villages ; and 
sometimes cities, containing 20,000 inhabitants, have been consumed and 
buried under the burning lava. — There are reckoned about fourteen of these 
volcanoes in Europe ; of which the principal are Mount Hecla in Iceland, 
Mount Vesuvius, near the city of Naples, Mount Etna in Sicily, and 
Stromboli in one of the Lipari islands. Etna and Vesuvius are often quiet, 
for many months, and even years, without the appearance of fire, though 
the smoke is always ascending from their craters ; but the mountain 
Stromboli is ever at work, and appears to be the only volcano that burns 
without ceasing ; and for ages past, it has been looked upon as the great 
lighthouse of the surrounding seas. Several phenomena of awful sublimity 
and terrific grandeur frequently accompany the eruptions of these volcanoes. 
Hecla in Iceland, is a mountain nearly a mile in perpendicular elevation, 
and a considerable portion of it is covered with snow. In an eruption of 
this volcano in 177.5, a stone weighing 290 pounds was thrown to the 
distance of 24 English miles. Not far from this mountain, in the year 1783, 
there happened a most dreadful and appalling eruption, which was preceded 
by a violent earthquake, which lasted for a fortnight ; after which the lava 
broke out from the earth, in three diflerent places, forming three dreadful 
Flre-Spo-nts. These fire-spouts, or streams of burning lava, after having 
risen a considerable height into the air, united into one, arriving at last at 
such an amazing altitude, as to be seen at the distance of more than 200 
miles. The height to which this fiery stream ascended was reckoned to be 
ftot less than two miles above the surface of the earth. This fire first 
became visible on the 8th of June, and continued to produce devastation 
and terror till the 16th of August following. In one direction, it formed a 
lake of fire spreading out itself in length and breadth more than 36 miles ; 
and, having converted all this tract of land into a sea of fire, it stretched 
it:;elf out in another direction, and rushed down the channel of a large 



VIEWS OF VESUVIUS. 



157 



river with violent impetuosity, tearing up the earth, and carrying on its 
surface flaming woods, and every thing it met with in its course, and forming 
otlier lakes of fire. The whole extent of ground covered by this fiery in- 
undation, was no less than 90 miles long, by 42 in breadth, or 3780 square 
miles, the depth of the lava being from 96 to 120 feet. All the time of this 
great eruption, the whole atmosphere was loaded with smoke, steam, ashes, 
and sulphureous vapours. The sun was frequently invisible, or, when seen, 
was of a dismal reddish colour ; and the rain which fell through the smoke 
and steam, was so impregnated with salt and sulphureous matter, that the 
hair and even the skin of the cattle were destroyed, and the grass of the 
fields rendered poisonous. Twelve rivers were dried up by this fiery inun- 




Inlenor of the Crater of Vesuvius. 




Vesuvius and Naples 

14 



158 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

dation, many lakes were filled up, 20 villages were destroyed, many tlioa- 
sands of sheep and cattle perished, and more than 240 human beings were 
destroyed. After this eniption, two islands were thrown up from the bottom 
of the sea, 100 miles south-west from Iceland — one of them three miles in 
circumference, and about a mile in height, which continued for some time 
to burn with great violence. 

Ill an eruption of Vesuvius in 1769, about midnight, a fountain of fire 
was shot up to an amazing height, casting so bright a light, that the smallest 
objects were clearly distinguishable at any place within six or seven miles 
of the mountain. On the next day a most violent report was heard, which 
shook the houses of the town of Portici to such a degree, that the windows 
were broken and the walls rent by the concussion of the air ; and, in an 
instant, a fountain of liquid transparent fire began to rise, and, gradually 
increasing, arrived at length at the amazing height of 10,000 feet and up- 
wards, when its blaze was reflected with av^'ful grandeur from the sea. A 
gentleuum, at Sorrento, twelve miles distant fiom Vesuvius, read the title- 
page of a book by that volcanic light. — Mount Etna is the largest volcano 
in Europe. It is above 2 miles in perpendicular height ; it is about 30 miles 
in a straight line along its declivity to the top, its circumference at its base 
is above 120 miles, and its crater above three miles in circumference. In 
1669, bvirning rocks, 15 feet long, and .50 in circumference, were thrown to 
the distance of a mile, and showers of cinders and ashes to the distance of 
more than 60 miles. A fiery stream burst from the mountain, 14 miles long 
and 6 miles broad, which destroyed in its course the habitations of nearly 
30,000 persons ; and, meeting with a lake four miles in compass, not only 
filled it up, but made a mountain in its place. The quantity of materials 
thrown out by volcanoes is prodigious. It was calculated that, in this 
eruption, the matter thrown out amounted to 150,000,000 cubical yards; 
so that, had it been extended in length upon the surface of the earth, it 
would have reached nearly four times round the circumference of the globe. 
The noise emitted by volcanoes has been compared to a mixed sound made 
up of the raging of a tempest, the murmur of a troubled sea, and the 
roaring of thunder and artillery, confused altogether. The roai-ings of 
Cotopaxi in South America, one of the largest volcanoes in the world, have 
been heard at the distance of more than 200 miles. Volcanoes are found 
in every quarter of the world. Forty have been observed constantly burn- 
ing between Cotopaxi and the Pacific ocean ; 20 have been seen in the 
chain of movmtains that stretches along Kamtschatka ; and many of them 
are to be found in the Philippines, the Moluccas, the Cape de Verd, the 
Sandwich, the Ladrone, and other islands in the Pacific ocean. About 205 
volcanoes are known to exist, of which 107 are in islands, and 98 on the 
great continents. All these grand and terrific phenomena of nature are 
luider the direction and control of the Creator of the universe ; and they 
afibrd presumptive proofs that man has fallen from his original rectitude, 
and is no longer in a state of innocence. 

Questions on the preceding Lesson. 

(1.) What is the nature of a volcano 1 What part of a volcano is its 
crater ? What substances are thrown out from volcanoes 1 What appear- 
ances generally accompany their eruptions ] What are the signs or fore- 
runners of an eruption ! What is meant by lava ? What appearances does 
it present, and what cHects does it produce? Which are the principal vol- 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 159 

canoes hi Europe 1 What is peculiar with respect to Stromboli 1 Describe 
the size and situation of Hecla. What preceded the eruj)tion in Iceland in 
1783 ! What extraordinary appearance did this ^eruption exhibit ] Of what 
did the fire-spouts consist 1 at what distance were tliey seen 1 and to what 
height did they rise ? How long did they continue to burn 1 How large a 
tract of country was covered by the burning materials l and what devas- 
tations did they produced What was the depth of the burning stream 1 
What was the appearance of the sun during this eruption 1 Whut effects 
were produced by the rain, and what was the state of the atmosphere 1 — 
What striking appearance was beheld during an eruption of Vesuvius] At 
what time of the day or night was it seen ? What happened before another 
awful appearance ? Describe the size of Mount Etna, and state the circum- 
ference of its crater. What were the circumstances attending its eruption 
in 1G69, and what effects did they produce ] — (2.) What number of vol- 
canoes has been ascertained! In what countries are they found ] How 
many are in Europe 1 How many in the mountains of Kamtschatkal 
What size of stones have been thrown out of Etna and Hecla, and to what 
distance were they thrown ? How many villages were destroyed by the 
eruption in Iceland 1 What effect did it produce on the lakes and rivers 1 
and upon animated beings 1 Were any men and women destroyed 1 What 
were the length and breadth of one of the lakes of fire formed by this 
eruption 1 Describe the dimensions of the fiery stream which ran down 
Mount Etna in 1669. To what has the noise of volcanoes been compared! 
What effect did this noise produce in the town of Portici 1 At what distance 
was a gentleman enabled to read by the flame of a volcano 1 What was 
reckoned the height of the stream of fire which ascended from Vesuvius ? 
How many habitations were destroyed by the eruption of Etna! and what 
effect did it produce on a lake 1 Have any volcanoes ever risen from the 
bottom of the sea ! From what part of a volcanic mountain does the erup- 
tion of lava proceed] and does it always issue from the same part ] What 
was the size of one of the islands thrown up from the sea near Iceland ] 
To what distance have sand and ashes been thrown in the eruptions of 
volcanoes 1 What is generally the appearance of the sky, and of the lumi- 
naries of heaven, previous to an eruption, and during its continuance 1 At 
what distance have the sounds of the volcano Cotopaxi been heard 1 — What 
is the meaning of the word subtcvraneoiis ? whence is it derived, and of 
what words is it compounded ] Describe, likewise, the meaning of the 
words phenomena, summit, devastation, inundation, lava, &c. Point, on 
the map of Europe, to the situations of Hecla, Vesuvius, Stromboli, and 
Etna. Point, on the map of the World, to the situations of the other 
volcanoes mentioned in the lesson. How many volcanoes are situated in 
islands 1 What length of a journey is requisite in ascending to the top of 
Etna] Under whose superintendence are the operations of volcanoes 1 and 
what moral instructions may we learn from their terrilic and destructive 
effects 1 

The above lesson is compiled from five or six different sources, 
so as to condense as many interesting facts as possible in one de- 
scription. The language of the original authors have been altered 
and simplified, and some original sentences interwoven. It is 
seldom that a mere extract will be found, in all its parts, sufTi- 



160 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

ciently perspicuous and interesting to the young; and therefore 
it would require a considerable degree of labour and research to 
arrange and compile a volume or two on the plan proposed. The 
questions are intended to excite the attention and judgment of the 
pupil, and the answers are understood to be prepared by him, 
previous to his reading the lesson along with his class. At the 
same time, the teacher has it in his power to put to his pupils 
as many subordinate questions connected with the subject as he 
may deem expedient, and to illustrate, by familiar descriptions, 
any objects either directly or indirectly connected with the facts 
stated in the lesson. — The first twenty-six questions are stated 
nearly in the order of the lesson ; the remaining queries, begin- 
ning at No. 2, are intentionally arranged in a dtferent order, to 
exercise the judgment of the pupil, and to prevent him getting his 
answers by rote. This arrangement would require to be adopted 
in almost every lesson. Each lesson should contain a perspicu- 
ous description of some well-defined scene or object, the know- 
ledge of which would form a portion of the foundations of useful 
science. And, were all the ideas comprised in a lesson of this 
description to be impressed upon the mind of the pupil every day^ 
it cannot be doubted, that in the course of a year, when above 
three hundred such lessons would be studied, a very considerable 
portion of useful information would be communicated — far su- 
perior in utility and extent to all that has hitherto been acquired 
by the perusal of Epilogues of stage-players. Speeches in the 
Roman Senate, Parliamentary debates, the encounters of knights 
and warriors, essays on criticism and oratory, and all the other 
prosing dissertations with which so many of our school-collections 
are occupied. 

Besides the questions referring to the descriptions contained in 
the lessons, a variety of miscellaneous questions, in reference to 
the common appearances of nature, and the different branches 
of popular science, might occasionally be proposed to the pupils 
to excite their curiosity, and exercise their i-easoning powers. 
For example — 

How many miles should we require ta travel before we could go quite 
round the world 1 What proofs can you give that the earth is round like a 
globe ? Is there more land or water on the surface of the earth ? What 
is meant by the atmosphere 1 Has the air any weight ? By what experi- 
ments can you prove that the air presses upon our bodies, and upon all 
parts of the earth? How do j'ou prove that air exists, since it cannot be 
seen? What is the appearance of the sky during a thunder-storm? 
Whether is the lightning seen before or after a peal of thunder ? By what 
means could you measure the distance between the earth atid a thunder- 
cloud ? What ellects does lightning sometimes produce ? — How many 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 161 

senses has man ? Which is the organ of vision ] What part of the eye 
lets in the Ught 1 Is the opening which lets in the Ught always of the same 
size 1 What knowledge do we derive by means of the sense of seeing"? 
Have all animals the same number of eyes ] What is peculiar in the eyes 
of flies and other insects 1 — What arc some of the diflercnt kinds of ani- 
mals that live in the air, the waters, and the earth ] What is the difiercncc 
between a beast, a bird, and a fish 1 between a reptile and an insect 1 &c. 
Is a lobster a beast, a reptile, or a fish 1 What are the different parts of a 
plant ] What part of a plant is the stem or trunk 1 What enables plants 
to stand upright, although they are tossed with the wind ] Do all plants 
grow upright ? What plants are useful for food 1 for building 1 for cloth- 
ing ? &c. What parts of our clothing are made from plants ] Could wo 
have clothing from animals, if no plants existed 1 What would be the ap- 
pearance of fields and mountains, if there were no plants 1 — What are the 
tides ] How often do they ebb and flow in the course of a day 1 At what 
periods of the moon are the tides highest 1 Does the sun appear round 1 
Does the moon always appear round ] What other phases or shapes does 
she assume 1 At what period of the day or night docs the moon rise when 
she appears with a round full face 1 In what direction does she appear af- 
ter sunset, when she assumes the form of a slender crescent ? — If you take 
a wine-glass, fill it with water, and press a piece of paper upon the mouth 
of it, and then turn it upside-down, will the water run out of the glass ] 
If you take a glass tube, and fill it with water, and press your thumb hard 
upon the top of it, what is the reason that the water will not run out at the 
bottom of the tube, although it is open ] When a boy's sucker is moisten- 
ed with water, and pressed upon a smooth stone, what is the reason why it 
is able to lift up a stone of a pretty large size 1 Would the sucker pro- 
duce the eflfect if it were not moistened with water 1 

Many thousands of queries of this description might be pro- 
posed to the young, which, if judiciously selected, explained, and 
illustrated, could not fail of gratifying their curiosity, and of im- 
parting the elements of useful knowledge, and, above all, of 
exciting a spirit of observation, of fixing the attention, and of pro- 
moting a habit of reasoning on the various objects and operations 
they perceive around them. An hour or more, during two or 
three days in the week, might be profitably spent in such exer- 
cises, which should always be accompanied with familiar and 
minute explanations, and, where the subject admits of it, with 
amusing and illustrative experiments.* 

Another occasional exercise might consist in exhibiting to a 
class a variety of objects, both natural and artificial, — such as, 
the model of a ship, a pair of bellows, a mineral substance, a 
shrub, a flower, a leaf, a bird, an insect, or any other object — 
and causing the pupils to describe the parts or qualities of the 

• A considerable variety of such questions as those to which I allude* 
will be found in an excellent little work, by Mr. Jacob Abbot, Principal of 
Mount Vernon School, entitled, " The Little Philosopher." 

14* 



162 LES30x\3 ON OBJECTS, 

object exhibited, and the characteristics by which it is distin* 
guished from every other class of objects. If it be a ship, the 
masts, the yard-arms, the bow, the poop, the keel, the different 
kinds of sails, &c. their uses, properties, and the terms by which 
they are distinguished, may be pointed out and described. — If it 
be Sijf.otver, the calyx, corolla, stamina and pistil, may be pointed 
out, the class to which it belongs described, and the characteris- 
tics by which it may be known from every other flower distin- 
guished. After having several times exhibited and described such 
objects, they may afterwards be held up to the view of a class, 
or handed round among the pupils for their inspection, and each 
of them, or at least a [ew of the more intelligent, interrogated 
respecting the parts, qualities, uses, or circumstances connected 
with the object exhibited. The objects which may be thus de- 
scribed are almost innumerable ; and hence the necessity, in such 
a system of instrxiction, of collecting for every school an exten- 
sive museum of natural and artificial objects, — of having an 
extensive plot of ground connected with the seminary, for rearing 
trees, shrubs, and flowers of diflferent kinds — and of enjoying an 
extensive prospect from the roof of the building, with the view of 
descrying as many objects as possible, for the purpose of elucida- 
tion and instruction. — The following example, taken from the 
" Lessons on Objects," as given in a Pestalozzian school at 
Cheam, will partly illustrate the plan here suggested : — 

Lesson on Glass. — The pupils are supposed to be arranged 
before a black board, upon which the result of their observations 
is written. The glass is passed round the party to be examined 
by each individual, so that his attention and powers may be exer- 
cised about it. 

" Teacher. What is that which I hold in my hand ] Childre7i. A piece 
of glass. T. Can you spell the word ' glass]' [The teacher then writes 
the word ' glass' upon the slate, which is thus presented to the whole class 
as the subject of the lesson.] You have all examined the glass, what do 
you observe 1 what can you say that it is 1 C. Tt is bright. [The teacher, 
having written the word ' qualities,' writes under it, ' It is bright.'] T. Take 
it in your hand and feel it. C. It is cold. [Written on the board, under 
the former quality.] T. Feel it again, and compare it with the piece of 
sponge that is tied to your slate, and then tell me what you perceive in the 
glass. C. It is smooth, it is hard. T. Is there any other glass in the 
room 1 C. Yes, the windows. T. Close the shutters : can you see the 
garden now 1 C. No. T. Why cannot you "? C. We cannot see through 
the shutters. T. What can you say, then, of the glass ? C. We can see 
through it. T. Can you tell me any word that will express this quality 1 
C. No. T. I will tell you then ; pay attention that you mny recollect it. 
It is transparent. What shall you now understand, when I tell you that 
a substance is transparent? C. We can sec thronp^h it. T. You are right; 



WRITING AND COMPOSITION. 



163 



try and recollect something that is transparent. C. Water. T. If I were 
to let this glass fall, or you were to throw a ball at the wnidow, what would 
be the consequence 1 C. The glass would be broken. It is brittle, i . 
Could I in the same manner break the shutters 1 C No. F. ^""/^^ 
break it if I used great force 1 C Yes. T. Would you therefore cal the 
wood brittle 1 C. No. T. What substances then do you call brittle . 
C. Those which are easily broken." 

These are probably as many qualities as would occur to chil- 
dren at their first attempt, which, being arranged on the slate or 
board, form an exercise in spelling. They should then be 
effaced, and if the pupils are able to write, they may endeavour 
to remember the lesson, and put it down on their slates. Various 
other qualities of glass might afterwards be described to the 
pupils, particularly its power of forming images and magmfying 
objects, when ground into convex lenses, and combined in tele- 
scopes and microscopes, which unfold to our view the wonders 
of the heavens, and the minute parts of creation. The chief busi- 
ness of a teacher, in such exercises, is, to draw out the ideas of 
children, to direct them in a right channel, to teach them to fix 
their attention on what is immediately before them, and to em- 
ploy their reasoning powers in drawing the proper conclusions 
from the objects they contemplate. Contrary to the almost uni- 
versally prevailing practice, the idea of any object should gene- 
rally precede the term by which it is designated ; so that a child 
having acquired a clear conception of an object, may feel the 
want of a term or terms by which its nature or qualities niay at 
any time be expressed, and be enabled, on every occasion, to 
associate the one with the other. 

Section II. — Writing and Composition. 

On this branch of education, I shall offer only a few general 
remarks, in addition to those formerly stated. — Writing is an art 
of the greatest utility and importance, and to which children 
should be accustomed at an early period of their lives. In the 
first instance, they may be taught to write on a slate, with a 
slate-pencil, which they may be taught to hold in the same way 
as we hold a goose-quill or a steel-pen. Instead of beginning 
with straight lines and parts of letters, they might at once begin 
either with complete letters or short words, which should seldom 
be made of a larger size than half text, as in the actual business 
of life there is seldom occasion for writing a large text-hand. Mr. 
Buchanan (a gentleman who has been long a successful teacher 
in Greenock, and the author of several useful publications) lately- 
showed me a plan he had recently introduced to facilitate the 



164 



OBJECT OF WRITING. 



forming of letters, when a child is set to write on a slate. The 
method is as follows : — Slates are prepared, as in the following 
figure, with the letters, a, &, c, &c. indented on the left-hand side. 




The pupil works his pointed slate-pencil several times throughout 
the indentings of each letter, and, after he has become familiar 
with its slopes and curves, and acquires the movements requisite 
to form the letter, he tries to write a number of the same letters 
in succession, on the line drawn on the slate immediately op- 
posite. Mr. Buchanan has found this plan greatly to facilitate 
the accurate formation of the letters, in the first attempts of chil- 
dren to write on slates ; and it certainly deserves a fair trial in 
other seminaries. Short words might be indented in the same 
manner ; and when the pupil is at a loss as to the formation and 
the joinings of the different letters, he may recur to the indented 
model, and by following with his pencil its turnings and windings, 
three or four times in succession, he will soon be enabled to form 
the word on his slate. 

On a principle somewhat similar, a child may be taught to 
write with ink upon paper, by setting before him a piece of good 
writing made with a red pencil, and making him pass and repass 
over all the strokes and curves with a pen full of black ink. — In 
Professor Jacotot's system of education — instead of commencing 
with elementary lines, curves, and letters, in what is called text- 
hand — a complete sentence, written by the master, or engraved 
in small hand, is put before the eyes of the pupil, which he is 
directed to copy. He writes, as well as he can, the first word — 
suppose ' The ;' and no further progress must be made, till, by an 
attentive comparison of his own performance with the original 



USEFUL TRUTHS FOR CX)rr-LINES. 165 

copy, he becomes conscious of the faults and defects of the 
former. Such questions as these are then put. Q. Is this T 
well made ? A. No ; it is too high, or too short, or too long. Q, 
Could it be made better 1 A. \ think so. Q. What must you 
then do to improve it ? A. Make it longer, or broader, or shorter, 
&c. Q, How could you have made it better at first? A. By 
paying more attention, &c. — But I leave it to the writing-master 
to adopt such plans for leaching the formation of written charac- 
ters as his experience may deem most expedient, and conclude 
with two or three general remarks. 

The principal object of writing is to communicate our senti- 
ments to others, or to record the fleeting thoughts that pass 
through our own minds for the subject of future consideration. The 
art of writing should therefore be made to bear, as soon as possible, 
on the practical purposes of life. Instead of continuing children 
for years, at the formal practice of writing from 'copy-lines' — as 
soon as they acquire a tolerable hand, they should be accustomed 
to write forms of mercantile accounts — statements of arithmetical 
operations — cards of invitation — letters of friendship or business 
— forms of address and superscriptions — and whatever else they 
may afterwards have occasion to practice in the actual business 
of life. The miscellaneous sentiments embodied in the lines and 
pieces which they copy, should uniformly contain religious and 
moral precepts and sentiments easily understood, and statements 
of historical, geographical, astronomical, and scientific facts, in 
order that no opportunity may be lost in familiarizing the mind to 
useful knowledge. For example, instead of the unmeaning words 
generally given as 'copies,' such sentences as the following might 
be substituted ; 

" The eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholding the evil and the 
good. He knoweth our downsitting and our uprising, and understandeth 
all our thoughts. The darkness cannot hide from him ; for the darkness 
and the light are both alike to God." " The power and wisdom of God are 
seen in the construction of the smallest insect. In a single drop of certain 
kinds of water, hundreds of little animals may be seen, by the microscope, 
swimming like fishes in a pond, every one of them having eyes, a mouth, 
stomach, and bowels, and instruments of motion." " About sixteen hun- 
dred years after the Creation, the whole earth was covered with a flood of 
water, which reached more than twenty feet above the tops of the highest 
mountains." " Fear God, and keep his commandments. Love your ene- 
mies, do good to them that hate you, and live peaceably with all men. If 
thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink. For God is 
long-suffering and kind, even to the unthankful and the evil ; He causeth 
his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth his rain to water 
the fields both of the righteous and of the wicked." " The world in which 
we dwell is rour.d, like a globe or ball ; and it would rei^^uire a journey of 



166 EXERCISES lis COMPOSITION. 

nearly twenty-five thousand miles before we could go quite round it.' 
" The Atlantic ocean lies between Europe and America, and it is three thou- 
sand miles broad." "Africa is a very hot country, and there are great num- 
bers of people living in it whose skin is entirely black. " China is the 
most populous empire in the world : it contains about three hundred millions 
of inhabitants. The whole world contains above eight hundred millions." 
" The moon is two thousand one hundred and sixty miles in diameter ; and 
is two hundred and forty thousand miles distant from the earth." " The sun 
is ninety-five millions of miles distant; and is more than twelve hun- 
dred thousand times larger than the whole earth." " The air, or atmosphere, 
presses upon every square yard of the earth's surface with a force equal to 
more than nineteen thousand pounds." "The river Amazons is three thou- 
sand miles long, and is the largest river on the globe," &c. 

A sentence or two of this description might be given to a whole 
class of writers, to be copied several times over ; and after the 
class has finished the writing, the fact, or sentiment contained in 
the sentence might be explained and illustrated. By this means, 
a number of useful facts and practical rules of conduct might be 
gradually communicated to the youthful mind ; and, being noted 
down in the pupil's copy-book, they might be reperused and 
referred to on any future occasion. Perhaps it might not be in- 
expedient to classify a number of fundamental truths, facts, and 
aphorisms, under such heads as the following — Religious, Moral, 
Geographical, Historical, Astronomical, Chemical, Optical, 
Botanical, Sfc. allotting two or three pages of the copy-book for 
each department. The above suggestion proceeds on the princi- 
ple, that in every department of study, an opportunity should he 
taken of imparting some new and useful truth to the understand- 
ing of the young, or impressing some moral lesson upon the 
heart. 

As soon as the pupil is able to handle the pen with some de- 
gree of dexterity, he should be accustomed to write forms of let- 
ters, narratives, essays, or real epistolary correspondence. He 
may likewise, at this period, be gradually taught the art of com- 
position. This may be effected, in the first instance, by recount- 
ing to him a striking narrative, or an interesting historical fact, 
and desiring him immediately to repeat it in his own style, and 
afterwards to write it down nearly in the same manner. After 
being accustomed to write, a few simple narratives, descriptions 
of some objects connected with natural history, or some strikin"- 
moral sentiments, may be read orver several times in his hearini^, 
as exercises in composition. He may next be requested to give a 
narrative of any excursion he has made, either alone, or in com- 
pany, and a description of the scenes he has visited, the events 
that occurred, and the friends by whom ho was entertained. He 



UTILITY OF EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 167 

may also be desired to describe the rural scenery around him, and 
the streets, lanes, public buildings, and other remarkable objects 
connected with the town or village in which he resides. A stuffed 
bird or quadruped, an insect, a plant, flower, or any other object, 
might occasionally be presented to him, with a request to describe 
in writing, its form, parts, proportions, and properties, as they 
appear to his senses after a minute inspection. The apparent 
motion of the sun during summer might be prescribed as an ex- 
ercise of this kind, in which he might be desired to describe the 
direction or position of the sun at 6 and 9 o'clock in the morning, 
at noon, and at 3, 6, and 8 o'clock in the afternoon. A description 
of the different phases of the moon, and of the positions in the 
heavens in which she appears, immediately after sunset, when she 
assumes the figure of a crescent, a half-moon, a gibbous phase, 
and a full enlightened hemisphere — might form another exercise.* 
Such exercises would tend to excite a spirit of observation, and 
to impress the mind with various facts, which would be found of 
immense benefit to the pupil when he should afterwards enter on 
the regular study of the sciences. When such exercises are pre- 
scribed to a whole class, a day and hour may be appointed, when 
a few of the compositions might be read by the teacher in t^ " 
presence of the class. This will give him an opportunity of offer- 
ing remarks on the merits of the different compositions, and of 
showing how the same ideas may be expressed in different lan- 
guage. On such occasions, orthographical and grammatical 
errors may be pointed out, and directions given how they may be 
avoided. At the same time, instructions may be given in refer- 
ence to the proper use of capital letters, stops and marks, and the 
proper arrangement of any piece of composition into sentences and 
paragraphs. 

The utility of such exercises will scarcely be called in question. 
They would habituate the young to observation and reflection — 
instead of looking at the objects and phenomena of nature with an 
unconscious gaze^ they would learn to inspect them with minute 

* In order to understand the object of such an exercise, it may not be 
improper to state, that immediately after sunset, the moon, when in a cres' 
cent phase, appears near the -west or south-ivest quarter of the heavens, in 
our northern latitude — when of the figure of a half-moon, she appears near- 
ly in the south at the same hour — when of a gibbons phase, about the south- 
east — and when a full moon, in the east, nearly opposite to the point of 
sunset, and sometimes a little to the south-east or north-east, according as 
she is in north or south declination. These circumstances can be easily as- 
certained in the course of a fortnight, and it is of some importance to a 
young person that he be enabled to determine them from his own observa- 
tions. 



168 DRAWING. 

attention, and investigate their forms, qualities, and effects. In 
such observations they would feel a variety of pleasing emotions ; 
for the acquisition of new facts and ideas, and knowledge of every 
description, is a source of enjoyment to Svery mind, whether young 
or old. Besides, such studies and employments would have a 
tendency to prevent them from engaging in frivolous pursuits and 
mischievous devices ; and, in the future periods of their lives, they 
would be enabled to record and describe, with perspicuity, any 
remarkable occurrences or facts that may fall under their obser- 
vation. We have reason to believe that many interesting facts 
in relation to geology, mineralogy, zoology, meteorology, and 
other departments of natural history, have been detected by per- 
sons in the lower ranks of life, which have been lost to the scien- 
tific world, in consequence of their being beheld with an incurious 
aye, and from the observers having been incapable of writing an 
intelligent description of the objects which came under their 
inspection. Hence the numerous bones of fossil animals which 
have been mangled and destroyed, and thrown aside as rubbish, by 
labourers and miners, had they been preserved entire, might have 
thrown a new light on the extinct species of the animal kingdom, 
and on the former state of the world. But in the present state 
of society, there is not one out of a hundred capable of writing a 
perspicuous description of any fact, physical, political, or moral, 
that may fall under his observation. If, therefore, young people 
were early excited to habits of observation, and to record in wri- 
ting the results of their observations, they might afterwards, in a 
variety of ways, be eminently useful in contributing to the ad- 
vancement of science and of general knowledge. 

Section III. — Drawing, 

In connection with writing. Drawing is an accomplishment in 
which every young person should be initiated. As writing con- 
sists in the imitation of characters and words, so drawing is the 
imitation or writing down of objects. Almost every child feels a 
desire to imitate the actions of others, and, when he has it in his 
power, to draw representations, however rude, of the objects 
around him ; and in such exercises feels no small share of enjoy- 
nient. — He may be taught to begin with geometrical figures, as 
lines, angles, squares, parallelograms, triangles, polygons, arches, 
circles, ovals, cones, pyramids, cylinders, and the like, as being 
the foundation of all other proportions. He may next proceed to 
the drawing of fruits, as apples, pears, cherries, &c. with their 
leaves ; of fiowcr.s, as roses, tulips, and daisies ; of birds, beasts. 



UTILITY OF DRAWING. 169 

fishes, and serpents ; of the human body, with its several linea- 
ments ; and of houses, spires, public buildings, and landscapes. 
After he has executed some of these objects from patterns set be- 
fore him, he should be encouraged as soon as possible to copy 
from nature. For this purpose, he might be directed to begin 
with attempting to draw the representation of an adjacent build- 
ing, of the schoolhouse, with its garden and area, of a church, a 
spire, a tower, or some adjacent public edifice — also the imitation 
of a tree, a flower, a horse, a cow, a dog, a ship, or a windmill. 
After drawing several landscapes from copies, he may be re- 
quested to delineate a particular landscape in the neighbourhood 
of the seminary ; and if such an exercise were prescribed to a 
whole class, premiums (if such a principle be admitted) might be 
offered for two or three of the best finished drawings. Previous, 
however, to such attempts, some of the principles of perspective 
would require to be familiarly illustrated. The pupil might next 
be instructed in the delineation of maps, the drawing of architec- 
tural plans, garden plots, and rural ornaments, machinery of 
different kinds, and optical, mathematical, and philosophical in- 
struments. In the present state of society, and amidst the im- 
provements now going on in all kinds of machinery, a particular 
acquaintance with this department of drawing would be found of 
great practical utility, and there are few mechanical exercises in 
which the young would take greater delight. 

Drawing has hitherto been considered chiefly in the light of 
an ornamental study, and has been viewed as principally adapted 
to the amusement of ladies, and the higher ranks of society ; and 
their attention has been chiefly directed to the copying of paint- 
ings, engravings, drawings, and fancy -pieces, which have no 
prototypes in nature. Hence there are comparatively few who 
have learned this art in the usual routine, that can accurately de- 
lineate a landscape from nature, draw an architectural plan, or 
give a correct representation of any instrument or piece of 
machinery. The art of drawing ought not to be cory^vdamiii ircr- 
merely an elegant amusement : it is capable of being, 'rendered of 
the greatest utility to science, and to those arts w^iich minister to 
the comfort and rational enjoyments of human life. Were useful 
knowledge more ^ '^tiivdiWY diffused, and were the young univer- 
sally taught to draw from nature, our views of the landscape of 
the world, of the facts of science, and of the operations of art, 
might be indefinitely enlarged. Every traveller would be en- 
abled to take a sketch of the wonders of nature, the varieties of 
art, the domestic associations, and the more interesting scenery 
displayed in the different regions through which ho passed ; and 

15 



170 UTILITY OF DRAWING. 

such sketches, being afterwards expanded into panoramas, or en- 
graved for the optical machine, might extend our conceptions of 
the scenery of the world, and convey clear and distinct views of 
objects which we may never have an opportunity of visiting. 
Every naturalist would be qualified to delineate an exact repre- 
sentation of any unknown tree, flower, shrub, or uncommon 
animal, that might fall under his observation. Every one engaged 
in astronomical observation could represent to others, with ac- 
curacy, the phenomena of the solar spots, with their numberless 
variations — the aspect of the lunar mountains, peaks, and vales, 
in every phase of the moon, and the changes which may occa- 
sionally be taking place — the varied appearances on the surfaces 
of the planets, as seen through telescopes — and the relative posi- 
tions, sizes and phenomena of the stellar and planetary nebulae 
dis[)ersed through the distant regions of space. Every artisan 
and mechanic would be qualified for sketching any mechanical 
improvement or invention, either of his own or of others; and 
every labourer, for delineating whatever curious or uncommon 
objects he might meet with, either in his rural walks, or in his 
digging, mining, and agricultural operations. 

But, in order to enjoy the advantages which would be derived 
from universal instruction in the art of drawing, every object 
which the young are set to copy should be one which has a real 
existence in nature, and which may be instrumental in conveying 
to their minds a new and correct idea of objects which they may not 
previously have seen, and thus of adding something to their stock 
of general knowledge ; and they should be given to understand, 
that the object of drawing is not mere amusement, but practical 
utility ; and consequently they should be induced to copy from 
nature and art as soon as they are able to handle the pencil with 
any degree of dexterity. It appears truly absurd and preposter- 
ous to set before children, as patterns of imitation, fancy pictures 
and imaginary landscapes which have no prototypes in the real 
world, whevn there are so many real objects and diversified land- 
scapes around us, and when we consider that every new object 
which has a reaJ existence, presented to a young mind, adds 
something to its stock of knowledge. Fanc.v pictures are of as 
little use in giving us correct representations^, ^lature and art, as 
novels and romances are in conveying accurate information of 
the transactions a\id events recorded in history. On this ground; 
I would deem it inexpedient to distract the attention of the young 
with historical paintings or drawings, however much such pieces 
may be admire 1. In short, when we consider how much useful 
information, as well as pleasure, may be conveyed by accurate 



EXERCISES IN NUMBERS. 171 

pictures taken directly from the scenes of nature and the opera- 
tions of art, we cannot but view it as highly expedient, in attempt- 
ing the general diffusion of knowledge, that every young person 
should be taught to delineate, on any emergency, whatever phe- 
nomena or processes of nature, or operations of art, may be 
thought worthy of being depicted and recorded. 

Section IV. — Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic is the science which explains the properties and re- 
lations of numbers, and the method of computing by them. A 
knowledge of this subject should form a part of every system of 
education, as its principles and rules form the groundwork of all 
the computations connected with commerce, geometry, mensura- 
tion, geography, astronomy, navigation, and other departments 
of science. 

Previous to engaging in the regular study of this science, and 
attempting its more complex operations, the general properties of 
numbers should be familiarly illustrated by sensible representa- 
tions, in a manner similar to what is generally practised in infant 
schools. This may be done either in private by an intelligent 
parent, or in a public school, as an occasional amusement for 
those who have not entered on the regular study of arithmetic ; 
which would prepare them for understanding its fundamental 
rules and computations. A variety of moveable objects, as peas, 
beans, beads, marbles, cubes, &c. may be provided, — or perhaps 
small pieces of wood cut in the shape of cubes or parallelepipeds,- 
as they do not roll, may be more convenient for this purpose — and 
a method such as the following, corresponding to the spirit and 
plan of Pestalozzi, may be pursued. The teacher, placing one 
of the cubes before the children, says, " This is one cube ;" the 
children at the same time repeat, "This is one cube." Thr^-^ 
teacher, adding another, says, "These are two cubes," which /'<^e 
children likewise repeat. This process may be continuo-^d till 
they advnn'^^- lo i.^ r>„mW_ //>c-,.. Then, taking all tj^-ie cubes 
^^^om the table, and throwing down four, lnv. .|uc&uon Is put, How 
many cubes are on the table 1 which the children, after having 
been for some time. familiarized to this mode of notation, will be 
able to answer. ?6ne4ike manner, other numbers may be succes- 
sively placed on tne table, and similar questions put. This pro- 
cess may be varied as follows : Placing a parallelopiped or oblong 
figure before the children, the teacher may say, " Once one" — 
placing another at a little distance from the first, " Twice one" — 
adding another, " Three times one ;" and so on, making the chil. 
dren repeat the numbers as the pieces are laid down. When the 



172 EXERCISES IN NUMBERS. 

ten oblongs are thus arranged at equal distances and in a straight 
line, such questions as the following may be put. How many 
oblongs are there on the table ? Do they lie close together ? Is 
the first oblong placed nearer to the second than the second is to 
the third ? Do their long sides lie in the direction of the window 
or of the door, &c. ? Could they be placed differently without 
changing either their number or distance ? When these questions 
are answered, they may then be desired either to shut their eyes 
or to turn their backs to the table, when three oblongs may be 
taken away, and the second moved nearer the first, and the ques- 
tion put, How many oblongs are there now? The children, 
having counted them, will say, " There are seueyi." How many 
were there before ? " Ten." How many have I taken away ? 
"Three." Did these oblongs undergo any other change ? "You 
have moved that (pointing to it) nearer to the other." In order 
to vary these processes as much as possible, the children should 
be desired to count the number of fingers on one or both hands, 
the number of buttons on their jackets or waistcoats, the number 
of chairs or forms in the room, the number of books placed on a 
table or book-shelf, or any other object that may be near or 
around them. By such exercises, the idea of number and the 
relative positions of objects would soon be indelibly impressed on 
their minds, and their attention fixed on the subject of instruction. 
These exercises may be still farther varied, by drawing, on a 
large slate or board with chalk, lines, triangles, squares, circles, 
or other figures as under. 

D A O D 

DQ AA OO DD 

DDQ AAA OOO 000 

n\DD AAAA OOOO, nnDD 

Having chaiK6aSffv:\i figures as the above, the children may a., 
taui^ht to say, " One line, one triangle, one circle, one square- 
two lines, two triangles, two circles, two squares— three hnes, 
three triangles, three circles, three squares," &c. which may be 
continued to twelve or twenty, or any other moderate number 
They may be likewise taucrht to repeat the numbers either back, 
wards or forwards, thus : " One triangle, two triangles, three tri 
angles, four triangles"— « Four circles, three circles, two circles 
one circle." The nature of the four fundamental rules of arith 
metic may be explained in a similar manner. Drawing five squares 



MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 173 

or lines on the board, and afterwards adding three, it would be 
seen that the sum of 5 and 3 is eight. Drawing twelve circles, 
and then rubbing out or crossing three of them, it will be seen 
that if 3 be taken from 12, nine will remain. In like manner 
the operations of multiplication and division might be illustrated. 
But it would be needless to dwell on such processes, as every 
intelligent parent and teacher can vary them to an indefinite 
extent, and render them subservient both to the amusement and 
the instruction of the young. From the want of such sensible 
representations of number, many young people have been left to 
the utmost confusion of thought in their first arithmetical pro- 
cesses, and even many expert calculators have remained through 
life ignorant of the rationale of the operations they were in the 
habit of performing. 

When the arithmetical pupil proceeds to the compound rules, 
as they are termed, care should be taken to convey to his mind a 
well-defined idea of the relative value of money — the different 
measures of length, and their proportion to one another — the 
relative bulks or sizes of the measures of solidity and capacity — 
angular measures, or the divisions of the circle — square measure 
— and the measure of time. The value of money may be easily 
represented, by placing six penny pieces or twelve halfpennies in 
a row, and placing a sixpence opposite to them as the value in 
silver; by laying five shillings in a similar row, with a crown 
piece opposite; and twenty shillings, or four crowns, with a 
sovereign opposite as the value in gold ; and so on, with regard 
to other species of money. To convey a clear idea of measures 
of length, in every school there should be accurate models or 
standards of an inch, a foot, a yard, and a pole. The relative 
proportions which these measures bear to each other should be 
familiarly illustrated, and certain objects fixed upon, either in the 
school or the adjacent premises, such as the length of a table, the 
breadth of a walk, the extent of a bed of flowers, &c. by which 
the lengths and proportions of such measures may be indelibly 
imprinted on the mind. The number of yards or poles in a fur- 
long or in a mile, and the exact extent of such lineal dimensions, 
may be ascertained by actual measurement, and then posts may 
be fixed at the extremities of the distance, to serve as a standard 
of such measures. The measures of surface may be represented 
by square boards, an inch, a foot, and a yard square. The 
extent of a perch or rod may be shown by marking a plot of that 
dimension in the school area or garden ; and the superficies of 
an acre may be exhibited by setting off a square plot in an adja- 
cent field, which shall contain the exact number of yards or links 

15* 



174 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



in that dimension, and marking its boundaries with posts, trenches, 
furrows, hedges, or other contrivances. Measures of capacity 
and solidity should be represented by models or standard mea- 
sures. The gill, the pint, the quart, and the gallon, the peck 
and the bushel, should form a part of the furniture of every 
school, in order that their relative dimensions may be clearly 
perceived. The idea of a solid foot may be represented by a 
box made exactly of that dimension ; and the weights used in 
commerce may be exhibited both to the eye and the sense of feel- 
ing, by having an ounce, a pound, a stone, and a hundred-weight, 
made of cast-iron, presented to view in their relative sizes, and 
by causing the pupil occasionally to lift them, and feel their rela- 
tive weights. Where these weights and measures cannot be con- 
veniently obtained, a general idea of their relative size may be 
imparted by means of figures, as under. 




STONE. 



POUND. 



OUNCE. 



Angular measure, or the divisions of the circle, might be repre- 
sented by means of a very large circle, divided into degrees and 
minutes, formed on a thin deal board or pasteboard ; and two in- 
dexes might be made to revolve on its centre, for the purpose of 
exhibiting angles of different degrees of magnitude, and showing 
what is meant by the measurement of an angle by degrees and 



CIRCLE OF WEEKS AND MONTHS. 175 

minutes. It might also be divided into twelve parts, to mark the 
signs or great divisions of the zodiac. From the want of exhi- 
bitions of this kind, and the necessary explanations, young persons 
generally entertain very confused conceptions on such subjects, 
and have no distinct ideas of the difference between minutes of 
time, and minutes of space. In attempting to convey an idea of 
the relative proportions of duration, we should begin by present- 
ing a specific illustration of the unit of time, namely, the duration 
of a second. This may be done by causing a pendulum of 39^ 
inches in length to vibrate, and desiring the pupils to mark the 
time which intervenes between its passing from one side of the 
curve to the other, or by reminding them that the time in which 
we deliberately pronounce the word twenty-one, nearly corre- 
sponds to a second. The duration of a minute may be shown by 
causing the pendulum to vibrate 60 times, or by counting delibe- 
rately from twenty to eighty. The hours, half hours, and quar- 
ters, may be illustrated by means of a common clock ; and the 
pupils might occasionally be required to note the interval that 
elapses during the performance of any scholastic exercise. The 
idea of weeks, months, and years, nfi, ^ht be conveyed by means 
of a large circle or long stripe of pasteboard, which might be 
made either to run along one side of the school, or to go quite 
round it. This stripe or circle might be divided into 365 or 366 
equal parts, and into 12 great divisions corresponding to the 
months, and 52 divisions corresponding to the number of weeks in 
a year. The months might be distinguished by being painted with 
different colours, and the termination of each week by a black 
perpendicular line. This apparatus might be rendered of use for 
familiarizing the young to the regular succession of the months and 
seasons ; and for this purpose they might be requested, at least 
every week, to point out on the circle the particular month, week, 
or day, corresponding to the time when such exercises are given. 
Such minute illustrations may, perhaps, appear to some as 
almost superfluous. But, in the instruction of the young, it may 
be laid down as a maxim, that we can never be too minute and 
specific in our explanations. We generally err on the opposite 
extreme, in being too vague and general in our instructions, taking 
for granted that the young have a clearer knowledge of first prin- 
ciples and fundamental facts than what they really possess. I have 
known schoolboys who had been long accustomed to calculations 
connected with the compound rules of arithmetic, who could not 
tell whether a pound, a stone, or a ton, was the heaviest weight — 
whether a gallon or a hogshead was the largest measure, or 
whether they were toeights or measures of capacity — whether a 



176 



SUPERFICIAL MEASURE. 



square pole or a square acre was the larger dimension, or whether 
a pole or a furlong was the greater measure of length. Con- 
fining their attention merely to the numbers contained in their ta- 
bles of weights and measures, they multiply and divide according 
to the order of the numbers in these tables, without annexing to 
them any definite ideas ; and hence it happens that they can form 
no estimate whether an arithmetical operation be nearly right or 
wrong, till they are told the answer which they ought to bring 
out. Hence, likewise, it happens that, in the process of reduction, 
they so frequently invert the order of procedure, and treat tons 
as if they were ounces, and ounces as if they were tons. Such 
errors and misconceptions would generally be avoided were accu- 
rate ideas previously conveyed of the relative values, proportions, 
and capacities of the money, weights, and measures used in com- 
merce. 

Again, in many cases, arithmetical processes might be illus- 
trated by diagrams, figures, and pictorial representations. The 
following question is stated in " Hamilton's Arithmetic,' as an 
exercise in simple multiplication — " How many square feet in the 
floor, roof, and walls of a room, 25 feet long, 18 broad, and 15 
high? It is impossible to convey a clear idea to an arithmetical 
tyro, of the object of such a question, or of the process by which 
the true result may be obtained, without figures and accompany- 
ing explanations. Yet no previous explanation is given in the 
book, of what is meant by the square of any dimension, or of 
the method by which it may be obtained. Figures, such as the 
following, should accompany questions of this description. 

Floor and roof. 




Length, 25. 



Side xmlls. 



End walls. 





Length, 25. 



Breadth, 18. 



EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 



177 



The idea of superficial measure, and the reason why we mul- 
tiply two sides of a quadrangular figure in order to obtain the su- 
perficial content, may be illustrated as follows. Suppose a square 
table whose sides are 6 feet feet long, and another of the form of 
a parallelogram, 9 feet long, and 4 feet broad, the superficial feet 
contained in these dimensions may be represented as under — 
6x6 = 36, and 9x4=36. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 
13 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


'--^ 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


1— 


i34 


35 


36 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



By such a representation it is at once seen what is meant by a 
square foot, and that the product of the length by the breadth of 
any dimension, or of the side of a square by itself, must neces- 
sarily give the number of square feet, yards, inches, &c. in the 
surface. It will also show that surfaces of very different shapes, 
or extent as to length or breadth, may contain the same super- 
ficial dimensions. In the same way we may illustrate the truth 
of such positions as the following: — That there are 144 inches 
in a square foot — 9 square feet in a square yard — 160 square 
poles in an acre — 640 square acres in a square mile — 27 cubical 
feet in a cubical yard, &c. For example, the number of square 
feet in a square yard, or in two square yards, &c. may be re- 
presented in either of the following modes. 



178 



1 Square Yard. 



EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 

1 Square Yard. 







2 Square Yards. 



1 — i — * 
J 



When the dimensions of the mason work of a house are re- 
quired, the different parts of the building, which require separate 
calculations, as the side- walls, j^e end- walls, the gables, the 
chimney-stalks, &c. should be sf jj^^jtely delineated ; and if such 
delineations are not found in the -uj-oks where the questions are 
stated, the pupil, before proceeding to his calculations, should be 
desired to sketch a plan of the several dimensions which require 
his attention, in order that he may have a clear conception of the 
operations before him. Such questions as the following should 
likewise be illustrated by diagrams. " Glasgow is 44 miles west 
from Edinburgh ; Peebles is exactly south fi'om Edinburgh, and 
49 miles in a straight line from Glasgow. What is the distance 
between Edinburgh and Peebles?" This question is taken from 
" Hamilton's Arithmetic," and is inserted as one of the exercises 
connected with the extraction of the Square Root; but no figure 
or explanation is given, excepting the following foot-note. " The 
square of the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, is equal to 
the sum of the squares of the other two sides." It should be re- 
presented as under. 



44 Miles. 



GLASGOW 



EDINBURGH 




PEEBLES 



EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 



179 



In a similar manner should many other examples connected 
^yith the extraction of roots be illustrated. The following ques- 
tion can scarcely be understood or performed, without an iilus- 
trative figure, and yet there is no figure given, nor hint suggested 
on the subject, in the book from which it is taken. " A ladder, 
40 feet long, may be so placed as to reach a window 33 feet from 
the ground on one side of the street ; and by only turning it over, 
without moving the foot out of its place, it will do the same by a 
window 21 feet high on the other side. Required the breadth of 
the street]" The following is the representation that should be 
given, which, with a knowledge of the geometrical proposition 
mentioned above, will enable an arithmetical tyro to perform the 
operation, and to perceive the reason of it. 




22± ■_sm>^^mmm^>- 



By this- figure, the pupil will see that his calculations must 
have a respect to two right-angled triangles, of which he has two 
sides of each given to find the other sides, the sum of which will 
be the breadth of the street. The nature o^ fractions may be 
illustrated in a similar manner. As fractions are parts of a unit, 
the denominator of any fraction may be considered as the number 
of parts into which the unit is supposed to be divided. The follow- 
ing fractions, f , i, /_, may therefore be represented by a deline- 
ation, as follows : 



180 



FRACTIONS. 

9 parts. 



2 parts 



12 jmrts. 





7 


parts 

























_7_ 
1 2 





5 ^ar 


s. 















4 parfs 



By such delineations, the nature of a fraction, and the valve of 
it, may be rendered obvious to the eye of a pupil. — A great many 
other questions and processes in arithmetic might, in this way, 
be rendered clear and interesting to the young practitioner in 
numbers ; and where such sensible representations have a ten- 
dency to elucidate any process, they ought never to be omitted. 
In elementary books on arithmetic, such delineations and illustra- 
tions should frequently be given; and, where they are omitted, 
the pupil should be induced to exert his own judgment and ima- 
gination, in order to delineate whatever process is susceptible of 
such tangible representations. 

I shall only remark further, on this head, that the questions 
given as exercises in the several rules of arithmetic, should be all 
of a practical nature, or such as will generally occur in the ac- 
tual business of life — that the suppositions stated in any question 
should all be consistent with real facts and occurrences — that facts 
in relation to commerce, geography, astronomy, natural philoso- 
phy, statistics, and other sciences, should be selected as exercises 
in the different rules, so that the pupil, while engaged in numeri- 



GRAMMAR. 181 

cal calculations, may at the same time be increasing his stock of 
general knowledge — and that questions of a trivial nature, which 
are only intended to puzzle and perplex, without having any 
practical tendency, be altogether discarded. In many of our arith- 
metical books for the use of schools, questions and exercises, in- 
stead of being expressed in clear and definite terms, are frequently 
stated in such vague and indefinite language, that their object and 
meaning can scarcely be appreciated by the teacher, and far less 
by his pupils : and exercises are given which have a tendency 
only to puzzle and confound the learner, without being capable 
of being applied to any one useful object or operation. Such 
questions as the following may be reckoned among this class. 
" Suppose £2 and f of i of a pound sterling will buy three 
yards and f of | of a yard of cloth, how much will y^^ off of a 
yard cost?" "The number of scholars in a school was 80; 
there were one-half more in the second form than in the first ; 
the number in the third was f of that in the second ; and in the 
fourth, f of the third. How many were there in each form ?" 
In some late publication, such as "Butler's Arithmetical Exer- 
cises," and " Chalmers' Introduction to Arithmetic," a considera- 
ble variety of biographical, historical, scientific, and miscellaneous 
information is interspersed and connected with the different ques- 
tions and exercises. If the facts and processes alluded to in such 
publications, were sometimes represented by accurate pictures 
and delineations, it would tend to give the young an interest in 
the subject of their calculations, and to convey to their minds 
clear ideas of objects and operations, which cannot be so easily 
imparted by mere verbal descriptions ; and consequently, would 
be adding to their store of genial information. The expense of 
books constructed on this plan, ought to be no obstacle in the 
way of their publication, when we consider the vast importance 
of conveying well-defined conceptions to juvenile minds, and of 
rendering every scholastic exercise in which they engage interest- 
ing and delightful. 

Section V. — Grammar. 

Grammar, considered in its most extensive sense, being a 
branch of the philosophy of mind, the study of it requires a con- 
siderable degree of mental exertion ; and is, therefore, in its more 
abstract and minute details, beyond the comprehension of mere 
children. Few things are more absurd and preposterous than 
the practice, so generally prevalent, of attempting to teach gram- 
mar to children of five or six years of age, by making them com- 
mit to memory its definitions and technical rules, which to them 

16 



1 82 GRAMMAR. 

are nothing else than a collection of unmeaning sounds. In most 
instances they might as well be employed in repeating the names 
of the Greek characters, the jingles of the nursery, or a portion 
of the Turkish Alcoran. The following is the opinion of Lord 
Kaimes on this point : — " In teaching a language, it is the univer- 
sal practice to begin with grammar, and to do every thing by 
rules. I affirm this to be a most preposterous method. Grammar 
is contrived for men, not for children. Its natural place is be- 
tween language and logic ; it ought to close lectures on the for- 
mer, and to be the first lectures on the latter. It is a gross 
deception that a language cannot be taught without rules. A boy 
who is flogged into grammar rules, makes a shift to apply them ; 
but he applies them by rote like a parrot. Boys, for the know- 
ledge they acquire of a language, are not indebted to dry rules, 
but to practice and observation. To this day, I never think with- 
out shuddering, of Disputer's Grammar, which was my daily 
persecution during the most important period of my life. Deplo- 
rable it is that young creatures should be so punished, without 
being guilty of any fault, more than sufficient to produce a disgust 
at learning, instead of promoting it. Whence then this absurdity 
of persecuting boys with grammar rules?" 

In most of our plans of education, instead of smoothing the 
path to knowledge, we have been careful to throw numerous diffi- 
culties and obstacles in the way. Not many years ago, we had 
two characters for the letter s, one of them so like the letter f, 
that, in many cases, the difference could not be perceived. Wc 
had likewise compound letters^ such as c1, fl, fh, &c. joined to- 
gether in such an awkward manner, that the young could not dis- 
tinguish them as the same letters they had previously recognised 
in their separate state ; so that, in addition to the ungracious task 
of learning the letters of the alphabet in their insulated state, under 
the terror of the lash, they had to acquire the names and figures 
of a new set of characters, before they could peruse the simplest 
lessons in their primers. Such characters, it is to be hoped, are 
now for ever discarded. We have still, however, an absurd prac- 
tice in our dictionaries and books of reference, which tends to 
perplex not only our tyros, but even our advanced students, when 
turning up such works — I mean the practice of confounding the 
letters I and J, and the letters U and V, which are as distinct from 
each other as a vowel is from a consonant ; so that all the words 
beginning with J must be sought for under the letter I, and the 
words beginning with V, under the letter U, causing to every one 
a certain degree of trouble and perplexity, when searching for 
words beginning with any of these letters. Most of our school 



ABSURD METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 183 

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias are still arranged on this absurd 
principle, which should now be universally discarded. 

In the construction of our books of Grammar for the use of 
children, — instead of facilitating this study, we have done every 
thing to render it as dry and intricate as possible. We have de- 
finitions, general rules, exceptions to these rules, declensions and 
conjugations, profusely scattered throughout every part of these 
scholastic manuals, and a cart-load of syntactical rules and ex- 
amples, all of which must of course be crammed, like a mass of 
rubbish, into the memories of the little urchins, although they 
should not attach a single correct idea to any portion of such 
scholastic exercises. Nothing can be more simple than the 
English verb, which, unlike the Greek and Latin verb, has only 
two or three varieties in its termination ; yet, we perplex the 
learner with no less than six different tenses — the present, the 
imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the 
future perfect, — while nature and common sense point out only 
three distinctions of time in which an action may be performed ; 
namely, the past, the present, and the future, which of course 
are subject to a few modifications. On the same principle on 
which we admit six tenses, we might introduce nearly double 
that number. Hence a celebrated grammarian, Mr. Harris, in a 
dissertation on this subject, enumerates no fewer than twelve 
tenses. It is quite easy to make a child understand that a man 
is now striking a piece of iron with a hammer, that he did the 
same thing yesterday, and will perform the same action to-mor- 
row, — in other words, that an action was performed at some past 
time, is performing now, or will be performed at some future 
period ; but it is almost impossible to convey to his mind a clear 
idea o^ twelve, or even o^ six, tenses, although a hundred distinc- 
tions and definitions should be crammed into his memory. A 
disposition to introduce quibbling and useless metaphysical dis- 
tinctions has been the bane o^ theology, and one of the causes of 
the divisions of the Christian church. A similar disposition has 
rendered grammar perplexing and uninteresting to young minds, 
and prevented them from understanding or appreciating :+s na- 
ture and general principles. By attempting too much, in the 
first instance — by gorging their memories with all the distinc- 
tions, modifications, and rules, which grammarians have thought 
proper to inculcate, — we have produced a disgust at the study, 
when, by attempting nothing more than they were able clearly 
to comprehend, we might have rendered it both delightful and 
instructive. There are, properly speaking, no oblique cases in 
English nouns, excepting the possessive case, and yet, in sonie 



184 METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 

grammars, we have six cases specified, similar to those of Latin 
nouns; and in almost every book on grammar, three cases at 
least are considered as belonging to English nouns. On the same 
principle, we might affirm that there are as many cases as there 
are prepositions in the language ; for every combination of a pre- 
position with a noun forms a distinct relation, and consequently 
may be said to constitute a distinct case. Were it expedient in 
this place, many such remarks might be offered in reference to 
the absurdities and intricacies of our grammatical systems, and 
the perplexing and inefficient modes by which a knowledge of 
this subject is attempted to be communicated. 

In communicating to the young a knowledge of grammar, or 
of any other subject, that plan which is the easiest and the most 
interesting should of course be adopted. All intricate and abstruse 
definitions and discussions ought to be avoided, and nothing at- 
tempted but what is level to their comprehensions, and M'hich 
may be illustrated and explained by sensible images and repre- 
sentations. In endeavouring to impart a general idea of the ele- 
ments of grammar, I would, in the first instance, lead the pupils 
to a position where they would have a distinct view of an exten- 
sive landscape, where they might see either ships sailing, birds 
flying, windmills in motion, men digging the ground, or working 
with saws and hammers, carriages moving, or reapers cutting 
down the corn. I would then inform them (if they are acquaint- 
ed with numbers,) that there are about fifty thousand words in 
the English language, but that they may be reduced to about 
eight different classes* or kinds ; or, in other words, that all the 
words they see in the different books that come into their hands, 
however numerous they may appear, may be arranged into these 
classes. I would next tell them that one of these kinds of words 
is called nouns., or terms which express the names of all kinds of 
objects, and desire them to point out, in the landscape before 
them, some of those objects designated nouns. They would find 

* The words in the English language have generally been arranged into 
nine classp«, cr ' parts of speech ;" but it appears almost unnecessary to 
consider the article and the interjection as distinct parts of speech, particu- 
larly the interjection, which is not necessary to the construction of a sen- 
tence, being only thrown in to express the emotion of the speaker. It is 
proper, however, that the nature and use of these words be explained to 
the young. Perhaps all the words essential to language might be arranged 
into the four following classes; JVouns, Attributives, (or adjectives,) Af- 
firmatives, and Connectives. Such arrangements, however, are of little 
importance, provided we convey a clear idea to those whom we instruct of 
the leading parts of speech which are essential to language, and be careful 
not to perplex their attention with too minute or unnecessary divisions. 



METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 185 

no difficulty in complying with such a requisition, and instantly, 
" a house, a tree, a ship, a church, a flower, a man, a horse," 
and similar names, would be cheerfully vociferated. They would 
next be told that certain qualities or properties belong to every 
object ; that a house may be high or low^ large or S7nall, white, 
gray, or red — a tree, tall, thick, or slender — that a feather is 
light — gold, heavy — butter, soft, &c. ; and that the words, high, 
(ow, light, heavy, soft, &c. belong to that class termed adjectives, 
or words expressive of qualities. Some particular objects might 
then be mentioned, and the pupils requested to point out some of 
the qualities which they may possess. For example. Boy. After 
two or three qualities that a boy may possess are stated, they 
would soon apply the adjectives, good, bad, lazy, diligent, tall, 
handsome, mischievous, beaiitifid, and other qualities. A Table, 
round, oval, square, oblong, high, low, long, short, &c., adding 
the word table to each of these qualities. To diversify this exer- 
cise a little, a quality might be mentioned, and the pupils desired 
to name any objects to which it will apply. For instance, the 
quality Round, — when such answers as the following might be 
given, " A hat is round, a wafer is round, a saucer is round, a 
shilling is round, the sun and moon are round." In like manner, 
High, which applies to towers, mountains, trees, the clouds; 
and Soft, which applies to butter, dough, jelly, slime, pudding, 
snow, &c. 

I would next direct their attention to that class of words which 
express actions, and request them to look around upon the land- 
scape, and tell me if they perceive any thing in motion, or shift- 
ing its position from one place to another; (for motion, either 
mental or corporeal, is implied in every action.) Should they 
hesitate in answering this request, an instance or two may be 
pointed out ; but they will seldom be at a loss, and will at once 
reply — " Ships are moving — birds are flying — the horse is trot- 
ting — men are walking — the mason is breaking stones — the trees 
are waving — the labourer is digging the earth." They may also 
be told to stretch out their hands, to walk a few steps, to strike 
the ground with a rod, to look up to the sky, or to perform any 
other action that may be judged expedient, and then informed, 
that the words expressive of such actions, as walking, striking, 
breaking, flying, &c. are denominated verbs. Having engaged 
them several times in such exercises, till a clear idea of the nature 
of a verb is communicated, it will be easy to explain the differ- 
ence between active and neuter verbs, and the three tenses, the 
past, the present, and ihe future. They may be told, for exam- 
pie, that masons broke stones yesterday, and will break stones 

16* 



186 METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 

to-morrow — that James wrote a letter to his cousin a ^eyv days 
ago, and will probably ^crite another in a kw days hence — and 
that birds^e?o through the air last year, and willf.y in the same 
manner in the year to come. The quality of an action, and the 
manner in which it may be performed, or any circumstance that 
happens to be connected with it, may also be explained and illus- 
trated. Thus, they may be asked, In what manner the clouds 
move, and the birds fly — sloicly or swiftly ? In what manner the 
labourer performs his work — slovenly or neatly^ cheerfully or 
heavily 1 In what manner the river runs — smoothly or rapidly ? 
How James behaves during the time of instruction — attejitively 
or foolishly ? How the house to which I point is situated — plea- 
santly, awkwardly, or disagreeably ? They may then be told, 
that such terms as slowly, swiftly, smoothly, pleasantly, &lc. 
which express certain qualities of actions, constitute another class 
of words, denominated adverbs. 

Words which express the relations in which objects stand to 
each other, may be next pointed out. They may be directed to 
observe that a certain house (pointing to it) stands near a tower, 
a river, or a large tree — that a house on the right hand is distant 
from another on the left — that the clouds are placed above the 
earth — that the grass is under our feet, and that a certain man- 
sion is situated upon the declivity of a hill. Such relations might 
also be illustrated by desiring one of the pupils to walk to a cer- 
tain point, suppose a tree, and then to return from that point to 
his former position ; — or, to place himself in a position before the 
rest of the pupils, and afterwards in a position behi?id them — 
when the relative positions of objects denoted by the terms near, 
above, to, and from, before, and behind, may be familiarly 
explained, and designated by the word prepositions. An idea 
may be given of another class of words, which stand instead of 
names, by asking such questions as these : — How does that house 
look among the trees, on the opposite bank of the river ? The 
answer might be, " It looks beautifully." How does that lady 
walk ? She walks gracefully. What kind of a scholar is John ? 
He is a good scholar. What did two wicked boys do to Arthur 
a few days ago? They struck him with their fists. By such 
examples, it will be easy to show that the words it, she, he, stand 
in the place of house, lady, and John ; that they and their refer 
to the wicked boys, and that him stands instead of Arthur. They 
may be then informed, that such words are distinguished by the 
name pronouns ; and, by a few more familiar instructions, they 
may be made acquainted with the nature and use of the nomina- 
tive, possessive, and objective cases, both singular and plural, by 



ORIGIN OF GRAMMAR. 187 

which they are varied. In a similar way the nature and use of 
the article and of conjunctions may be pointed out and illustrated. 

The plan now described may be varied, by directing the atten- 
tion of the young to the objects contained in a parlour or a 
school-room — or, a large engraved landscape, accurdtely coloured, 
containing a considerable variety of objects, and representing va- 
rious artificers a.t work, and objects in motion, might be placed 
before them, and used for the same purpose as a real landscape — 
or, they may be desired to form an imaginary picture, every one 
being called upon to specify the objects they wish to be put into 
the picture, along with their qualities, and the actions and move- 
ments they wish to have exhibited. This picture may either be 
merely imaginary, or it may be rudely sketched with a pencil on a 
sheet of paper. One may desire that an elegant mansion may 
be placed in it ; another, a church with a spire, and near it a 
small cottage ; another may wish to see exhibited, a smith ham- 
mering his iron, or a few persons fishing in a river ; and another, a 
school and play-ground, a cotton-manufactory, or a steam-vessel 
sweeping along the river. — The exhibitions at a market or fair, a 
public procession, boys and girls at play, a festive entertainment, 
with all its accompaniments, the scenes of a sea-port, or any 
other scene connected with nature or human society, might be 
conceived or delineated for this purpose, and grammatical exercises 
connected with it in the manner now illustrated. I should, how- 
ever, prefer a real landscape, as it appears on a fine day of sum- 
mer or autumn, to any other exhibition ; as real objects make a 
more lively impression on the mind than any picture can produce, 
and the view of a beautiful landscape, in the open air, is attended 
with the idea of liberty, freedom from formal tasks, and various 
exhilarating circumstances. And it ought never to be forgotten, 
that, by connecting the process of education with varied and 
pleasant associations, we gradually enlarge the sphere of juvenile 
knowledge, and impress more deeply on the youthful mind the 
instructions we intended to impart. By a few occasional lessons, 
in the way of amusement, on the plan now stated, which may be 
varied in every possible mode, more correct ideas of the parts of 
speech may be communicated, than what is generally done in a 
year or two by the dry and abstract modes in which this branch 
of instruction has usually been conducted. 

Such a plan of instruction appears to be suggested by the mode 
in which we may conceive language to have been originally 
formed. Were we to suppose man just now created, and placed 
for the first time on the surface of this globe, his attention would, 
in the first place, be directed to the various objects which he be- 



188 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

held existing around him. These he would endeavour, by some 
means, lo distinguish one from another; and, if it were his design 
to invent a language by which he might hold a communication 
with other rational beings, his first effort would undoubtedly be, 
to give them names by which the ideas of them might be at any 
time recalled, when the objects themselves were absent from his 
view. These form a copious source of words, which must be 
common to every language formed for the communication of 
thought among intelligent beings, wherever existing, throughout 
the immensity of the universe. He would likewise soon discover 
that every one of the objects around him was endowed with certain 
attributes or qualities, to express which another class of words or 
signs would be requisite. In the course of his further survey, he 
would perceive certain changes, motions, and events, such as -the 
ebbing and flowing of the sea, the rising and setting of the sun, 
the flight of birds, the movements of quadrupeds, &c. the expres- 
sion of which would require a class of words distinct from the 
former. These classes comprehend all the words which can be 
deemed essential to language, or to a mutual interchange of sen- 
timents between rational beings. In the progress of the forma- 
tion of language, however, other words would be found highly 
expedient, for the purpose of ease or ornament, for connecting the 
different parts of a discourse, or to avoid circumlocutions or disa- 
greeable repetitions ; and hence the invention of pronouns, pre- 
positions, and conjunctions. If this appears to have been the 
process by which language was originally formed, it likewise sug- 
gests the proper mode by which a general knowledge of the object, 
use, and component parts of language may be communicated to 
the young. 

With regard to Syntax, in many of our initiatory grammars, 
-> are between thirty and forty syntactical rules, many of 
XheK 'ong and complex, and accompanied with numerous expla- 
fthem 1. distinctions, and exceptions, all of which are intended to 
! nations, u ^ verbatim into the memory of the grammatical tyro, 
be crammea lerstand them or not, and however ungracious and 
whether he unu assigned him. Is such a task necessary to be 
irksome the task instance? and, if imposed, will it tend to in- 

imposed, in the first greater relish for grammatical studies, or 

spire the pupil with a ^ ^" the art of composition? I have no 

render him more accurate questions in the negative. Although 

hesitation in answerino- such dmitted to be useful, it would be 

all the rules alluded to were u '' P^H^^^^^' ^ young person with 

highly inexpedient to burden an^ " *^^ ^^'^^ elements of gram- 

such exercises, when communicating ^^ cannot be supposed to 

matical arrangement, especially when 



FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 189 

have a clear conception of the meaning and application of the 
greater part of such rules. What idea, for example, can a child 
of six or seven years have of such a sentence as the following, 
which forms only the one-fourth part of the 30th rule of syntax, 
in Blair's Grammar — "The same adjectives, adverbs, and prepo- 
sitions, are always understood to apply to their respective parts of 
speech, when connected by conjunctions; so that, if either of them 
be changed in the next clause of the sentence, or the mood or 
tense of the verb be changed, the nominative or its pronoun must 
be repeated," — or of the tbllowing, which forms another part of 
the same rule — " All the parts of a sentence should correspond 
with each other, and a regular and similar construction be care- 
fully preserved throughout; and this corresponding analogy in 
the construction of sentences constitutes the principal charm of 
elegant composition."* 

I am fully convinced that, in the first instance, it is quite unne- 
cessary to advert to more than three or four fundamental rules in 
syntax, in order to direct the young in the general construction 
of sentences. There is one principal rule, which, if punctually 
observed, would prevent any egregious blunder from being com- 
mitted either in speaking or writing — and that is, "A verb should 
agree with its nominative in number and person.''^ This might 
be called, with some propriety, the Rule of syntax — a rule which 
is short and simple, which can be easily explained and compre- 
hended, on the observation of which the meaning of a sentence 
frequently depends, and a rule, in short, which is most frequently 
violated, even by good writers, especially when their sentences are 
long and complex. To this rule I would add the following — 
^'^ Active verbs and prepositions govern the objective case of pro- 
nouns ;" and, in order to prevent such inaccurate expressions as 
" more better,^'' " more dearer,^'' &c. the rule, " Double compara- 
tives and superlatives are improper," may be added. Exercises 
might also be given to illustrate the two following rules — " The 



* Mr. Blair, in his Preface to the Grammar alluded to, says, " A grammar 
for the use of schools should not contain any thing su/jerjijiotis," and 
"every thing should be expressed iji the smallest nuinber ofivords" — which 
are certainly good maxims, and yet some of his syntactical rules occupy 
nearly a page. He immediately adds, " Whatever it is desirable young peo- 
ple should know they imtst learn by rote — the memory is the oidy faculty 
of children of which teachers can properly avail themselves, and it is a vain 
attempt to address their immature powers of reason and reflection." Such 
sentiments are rather too antiquated for the nineteenth century. This gen- 
tleman, whether his name be real or fictitious, has succeeded much better 
in the execution of his " Class-Book," and his " Grammar of Natural Phi- 
losophy," than in his " Practical Grammar of the English Language." 



190 FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 

past participle should be used after the verbs have and be y" and 
" The verb to be, should have the same case after it as before it." 
It ought never to be forgotten, that the habit of accurate compo- 
sition depends more on practice, and the study of good writers, 
than on a multitude o^ rules ; and I appeal to every one who is in 
the habit of composing, whether, in the moment of committing 
his thoughts to writing, he ever thinks of the rules of syntax, except, 
perhaps, some of those now specified. I have known an indivi- 
dual, in the lower walks of life, who had never been taught gram- 
mar, nor perused any book on the subject — who wrote essays on 
physical subjects, which might have been inserted with propriety 
(and some of them were actually inserted) in respectable scientific 
Journals. The only inaccuracy which appeared was an occasional 
violation of the first rule of syntax above stated. A more correct 
idea of the construction of sentences will be conveyed to the young 
by the occasional remarks of a judicious teacher, during their 
reading lessons — by exercising them frequently on the rules above 
stated, particularly the first — in causing them to correct ungram- 
matical sentences — and by pointing out the inaccuracies which 
occur in their written compositions, — than by all the formal rules 
that can be packed into their memories. 

■ All the instructions alluded to above may be imparted without 
the assistance of any book or manual of grammar, and that, too, 
almost in the way of amusement. When the pupil has arrived 
at the age of 13 or 14 years, such books as " Murray's English 
Grammar," and " Irvine's Elements of English Composition," 
may be put into his hands for private perusal, where he will 
meet with a number of minute remarks and observations on the 
subject, which may be worthy of his attention. But, at the same 
time, he may be given to understand, that the careful study of 
good authors, a clear conception of the subject to which his atten- 
tion is directed, and the exercise of judgment, taste, and common 
sense, on every piece of composition, will be of more avail than 
any system of abstract rules ; and that a breach of some of the 
rules laid down by grammarians may sometimes be as proper as 
a strict observance of them. In short, in training children to 
accuracy, both in grammar and orthoepy, it might have a good 
effect were care uniformly taken, both in the school and the par- 
lour, to correct every expression in their ordinary conversation 
that is ungrammatical, or incorrect in their pronunciation — to 
explain the reasons of the corrections, and to endeavour, on all 
occasions, to induce them to express their thoughts with propriety 
and precision. In the schools in Scotland every child should be 
taught to pronounce the English language with accuracy, even 



GEOGRAPHY. 191 

in his common conversation, so that the Scottish language may 
be extirpated as soon as possible, since it will never again be the 
language of literature or science. 

Section VI. — Geography. 

Geography is a branch of knowledge with which every indi- 
vidual of the human race ought to be, in some measure, acquainted. 
It is scarcely consistent with the character of a rational being, 
surrounded by the immensity of the works of God, to feci no 
desire to become acquainted with these works, and, particular!}', 
to remain in ignorance of the form, magnitude, component parts, 
and general arrangements of the terrestrial habitation allotted for 
his abode. It is equally inconsistent with a principle of benevo- 
lence, and with the relations in which he stands to beings of the 
same nature and destination, to remain altogether unacquainted 
with the physical and moral condition of other tribes of his fellow- 
men, and to feel no interest in alleviating their miseries or pro- 
moting their improvement. It is even inconsistent with the spirit 
of religion and the duties of a Christian, to remain in indifference 
with regard to geographical knowledge, for "the field" of Chris- 
tian labour and benevolence is " the world" with its numerous 
tribes of inhabitants, which it is the great object of this science to 
investigate and describe. As the depositories of Revelation, of 
" the good things of great joy," which are intended to be commu- 
nicated " to all people,^'' we are bound to study this subject in all 
its bearings and relations, and to teach it to our children, and our 
children's children, that they may feel an interest in the moral 
condition of the inhabitants of distant lands, and employ their 
energies in diffusing Divine knowledge, in counteracting moral 
evils, in abolishing the system of warfare, and preparing the way 
for a harmonious intercourse among all the families of the earth. 
This science, therefore, ought to form a subject of study in every 
seminary devoted to the instruction of the young. Yet it is a 
fact, that, in the present state of society, we find thousands of 
our fellow-men almost as ignorant as the horse or the mule, of 
the arrangements of the world in which they dwell, and of the 
various tribes of human beings with which it is peopled — as if 
they had no connection with their brethren of the same family, 
nor any common relation to the Universal Parent who gave them 
existence. 

This study, like many other scholastic exercises, has too fre- 
quently been conducted in a dry and uninteresting manner, and 
very inadequate ideas communicated of its grand features and 
leading objects. Lists of the names of towns, cities, countries 



192 FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 

rivers, bays, and gulfs, have been imposed as tasks to the 
memory, without any corresponding ideas ; and the mechanical 
exercises of copying maps, and twirling an artificial globe, have 
not unfroqucntly been substituted for clear and comprehensive 
views of the leading facts and principles of the science. Physical 
geography has been almost entirely omitted in the initiatory books 
on this subject ; and most of them are constructed on this prin- 
ciple, that the meagre descriptions and details they contain shall 
be committed to memory by rote. In this way, months and even 
years have been spent, and as little real knowledge of geography- 
acquired, as there is of theology by the common routine of com- 
mitting to memory the vocables of the " Church Catechism," or 
the Westminster Assembly's synopsis of Divinity. 

In communicating a knowledge of geography, it is requisite, 
in the first place, to give the young a clear and impressive idea 
of the size^ form, component parts, and general arrangements 
of the earth, considered simply as an object of contemplation, 
and a part of the creation of God. In stating to a class of pupils 
that " the earth is round like a ball," the reasons or arguments 
which prove this position should be clearly and familiarly illus- 
trated. If they are near the sea-coast, they should be conducted 
to the margin of the sea, to observe how the hull of a ship, 
leaving the shore, disappears, near the horizon, before the sails, 
and the sails before the topmast ; and a telescope should be pro- 
vided, that the observation may be made with perfect distinctness. 
They may be informed, at the same time, that a ship disappears 
from the view, in the same manner, in all parts of the ocean; 
and if so, the ocean must form a part of the surface of a sphere; 
and if the ocean, with its numerous ramifications of seas, straits, 
and gulfs, be of a spherical form, the surface of the land must be 
nearly of the same figure, since it is nearly on the same level as 
the sea, no part of it rising more than a mile or two above this 
level, except the peaks of a few lofty mountains. Where there 
is no convenient access to the sea-coast, or the margin of a lake 
or river, the same fact may be illustrated by the appearance of a 
person going over the top of a conical hill, — or any waving tract 
of ground may be selected, and a little boy directed to walk from 
the one extremity to the other, over the highest point of it ; when 
it will be perceived, after having passed this point, that the lower 
parts of his body will first disappear, and that the top of his head 
will be the last part of him that will be visible, as represented in 
the following figure. 



PROOFS OF Tin: EAKTII'S ROTUNDITY. 



193 





The pupils may next be made to perceive, that if the earth be 
round like a globe, we might travel directly east or west, and, 
holding on in the same direction, without turning back, might 
arrive at the same point from which we set out ; and then be in- 
formed, that the experiment has actually been made — that ships, 
at different periods, have sailed quite round the world, the course 
of which may afterwards be pointed out on the artificial globe. 
But, as these voyages have been made only in an easterly or 
westerly direction, they may be led to understand that, had we no 
other proofs of the earth's rotundity, this experiment would only 
prove that the earth is round in one direction, like a cylinder or a 
drum. The roundness of the earth, from north to sovth, might, 
at the same time, be explained from the fact, that when we travel 
a considerable distance from N. to S. or from S. to N., a number 




17 



194 MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 

of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter 
to which we are advancing, while many of those in the opposite 
quarter gradually disappear ; which could not happen if the earth 
were a plane in that direction, like the longitudinal surface of a 
cylinder: for, in this case, we should see all the stars of the hea- 
vens, from the North pole to the South, on whatever portion of 
the cylindrical surface we. were supposed to he placed. This 
might be illustrated by surrounding a terrestrial globe, or any 
other ball, with a large hoop or circle, about twice or thrice the 
diameter of the globe, on which some of the stars might be repre- 
sented. This circle might be made either of wood or pasteboard, 
and the globe within it connected with a moveable plane to repre- 
sent the horizon, as exhibited in the following figure. 

In this figure, the inner circle represents the earth ; A, the 
North pole, and B, the South ; and the larger circle, E C F D, a 
portion of the celestial sphere. It is evident, that if a person 
be placed at the equator at G, he will see all the stars above the 
horizon C D, in the hemisphere D F C. If he move to the point 
H, 45 degrees nearer to the North pole, the moveable plane C D, 
may be moved in the direction E F, to represent the horizon of 
that place, when it will evidently appear that he has now lost 
sight of all the stars situated between F and D, and that the pole- 
star C, which, in his former position, was in his horizon, is now 
elevated 45 decrees above it. In a similar manner it micrht be 
shown that no such diflerence in the aspect of the starry heavens 
could take place, in travelling from South to North, or from 
North to South, were the earth of the form of a cylinder ; and 
consequently, that the fact above stated proves the rotundity of the 
earth in that direction. 

That the earth, considered as a whole, notwithstanding the 
irregularities caused by its mountains and vales, is of the figure 
of a sphere, may be illustrated from the phenomenon exhibited 
during the progress of an eclipse of the moon. An explanation 
of a lunar eclipse, accompanied with familiar illustrations, will 
be requisite to be given, before the proof of the globular figure 
of the earth be deduced from this phenomenon. Let the flame 
of a candle or gas-lamp represent the sun, and a wooden ball, 
supported by a wire, rejircsent the earth ; and let a circle, some- 
what less than the diameter of the ball, be drawn on a piece of 
pasteboard, and coloured, to represent the moon. Let them be 
placed at a moderate distance from each other, and nearly in a 
straight line, and let the pupils mark the curve of the shadow of 
the ball on the circle representing the moon, and that there is no 
body but one of the figure of a globe that can project a circular 



MAG^"ITUDE OF THE EARTH. 195 

shadow in every direction; for, although a counter or a shilling 
will cast a circular shadow in one diro^ction, yet in every other 
direction it is either an oval or a straight line. Hence the conclu- 
sion is easily deduced, that, if the shadow of the earth falling 
on the moon is the cause of an eclipse of that orb, and if this 
shadow, so far as it is seen, is always a portion of a circle, the 
earth, as a whole, must be nearly of a globular figure. In order 
to render such explanations clear and impressive — when a visible 
eclipse of the moon takes place, young persons should be direct- 
ed to observe such a phenomenon with attention — to mark the 
figure of the earth's shadow when it first enters on the eastern 
margin of the moon — before it leaves its western edge — and 
during the whole of its progress along the disk, if it happen to be 
a partial eclipse of the moon; and, although they be not directly 
engaged in geographical studies at the time, yet such observations 
will afterwards prepare them for understanding such explanations 
as now sussested. Such minute illustrations, so far from beinfj 
superfluous or unnecessary, are esentially requisite for producing 
in the minds of the young a rational conviction of the rotundity 
of the earth. I have known young ladies, and gentlemen too, 
who had passed through a scholastic course of geography, 
and yet could assign no other reason for their believing that the 
earth is globular, than this, "That their teacher told them so, 
and showed them a representation of it by the artificial globe.'* 
Besides, such specific explanations and illustrations tend to exer- 
cise the reasoning powers of the young, and to bring to their 
view a variety of incidental facts and circumstances connected 
with the subject, and thus their store of general information is 
gradually increased. 

Having, by such methods as the above, produced a clear con- 
viction of the spherical form of the earth, the next step might be 
to convey an impressive idea of its magnitude. For this purpose, 
let a class of young persons be conducted to an eminence, where 
they might have a distinct view of a landscape stretching about 
eight miles in every direction. Let their attention be particularly 
directed to the various objects which compose the scene before 
them ; let them be directed to consider the vast mass of materials 
contained in the hills or mountains which form a portion of the 
view-— the millions of labourers, and the number of years which 
it would be requisite to reduce the whole landscape to a perfect 
level, — 'the number of trees and shrubs of every kind contained 
within the range of their view — the almost innumerable millions 
of flowers of every hue, stalks of corn, blades of grass, mosses 
almost invisible to the naked eye, and vegetables of every descrip- 



196 MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 

tion, which cover every portion of the landscape — the cattle, sheep, 
horses, dogs, and other quadrupeds, and the multitudes of birds, 
worms, flying and creeping insects, and microscopic animalculcB, 
which no man can number, comprehended within the limits of 
their view — the number of houses and human beings in the towns, 
villages, and hamlets, which are scattered around, and the labours 
in which they are employed — the mass of waters in the rivers, 
and in that portion of the ocean which lies before them, (if such 
objects be in view,) and the numerous tribes of fishes which glide 
through the watery element. Let them be directed to consider the 
time and exertions which would be requisite to travel to the most 
distant part of the landscape, to go quite round it, and to cross it 
in forty or fifty directions, so as to attain a more intimate inspec- 
tion of the multifarious scenes and objects of which it is composed. 
Let certain general calculations be made of the ni/mher and mag- 
nitvde of such objects, of the motion of the inanimate parts of nature, 
of the activities of animated beings, and of the quantity of matter 
which appears on every hand. Having impressed upon their 
minds, as clearly as possible, such ideas of the magnitude and 
variety of the scene l3efore them, let them be informed that the 
landscape they are contemplating is about 50 miles in circumfer- 
ence, and that its surface contains 200 square miles; but, that the 
whole surface of the earth contains more than 196 millions of 
square miles, and, consequently, is nine hundred and eighty thoU' 
sand times larger than all the objects they behold around them ; 
so that they must conceive 980,000 landscapes as large as the 
one before them, before they can form an adequate idea of the 
magnitude of the earth. To impress this idea more deeply, they 
may likewise be told, that, were they to remain in the station they 
now occupy, ten hours every day, (the time usually allotted for 
daily labour,) and were a landscape of similar extent to that 
which they behold, to pass before their view every hovr, till the 
whole extent and scenery of the terraqueous globe were brought 
under their observation, it would require more than two hvndred 
and, sixty -eight years before they could survey, even in this rapid 
and imperfect manner, the whole superficial dimensions and varie- 
gated scenery of the globe on which we dwell. 

Their attention should likewise be directed to the solidity of 
the earth — that it is not a mere superficies, but contains within its 
bowels an immense and indescribable mass of matter, extending 
nearly 7900 or 8000 miles in every direction between the oppo- 
site portions of its circumference, amounting to more than 263 
thousand millions of cubical miles. An idea of this enormous 
mass of materials mav be communicated bv such illustrations as 



MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 197 

the following : — Suppose Mount Etna, — which ranks among the 
largest insulated mountains on the globe, and which contains 
around its sides 77 cities, towns, and villages, and 115,000 inha- 
bitants, — to be 120 miles in circumference around the base, about 
10 miles in circumference near the top, and 2 miles in perpendicu- 
lar altitude, and considering its figure to be nearly that of the 
frustrum of a cone, it will contain about 833 cubical miles, which 
is only the _^-g.^i-_ ___ part of the solidity of the globe, reckon- 
ing it to contain 263,858,149,120 cubical miles ; so that it would 
require more than th?'e€ hundred millions of mountains, such ns 
Etna, to form a mass equal to that of the terraqueous globe: and 
were these mountains placed side by side in a straight line, they 
would extend 12,100,097,574, or more than twelve thousand mil- 
lions of miles ; that is, more than six times the distance of Her- 
schel, the remotest planet of our system. And were we to travel 
without intermission, till we reached the extremity of such a line 
of mountains, at the rate of 25 miles every hour, (the utmost 
speed which our steam-carriages have yet attained,) it would ve- 
c\\me jifty-jice thousand, two hundred and ffty -one years, before 
the journey could be accomplished. And, were they arranged in 
circles, equal to the perimeter of the sun, they would go 4376 
times round the circumference of that stupendous globe, and 
cover a great portion of its surface. Again, suppose that all the 
inhabitants of the earth were to be employed in removing a mass 
of materials equal to that of our globe ; suppose all that are ca- 
pable of labouring to be 200 millions, and that each person re- 
moves ten cubical yards in a day, it would require more than 
1,970,956,164, or, one thousand nine hundred and seventy mil- 
lions, nine hundred and fifty-six thousand, one hundred and sixty- 
four years, before such an operation could be completed ; which 
is more than 337,550 times the number of years which have 
elapsed since the Mosaic creation. 

It is of some importance, that, by such illustrations, we endea- 
vour to convey to the minds of the young a luminous and im- 
pressive idea of the magnitude of the globe on which we dwell. 
For it is the only standard, or scale cf magnitude, by which we 
are enabled to form a conception of the bulk of the sun, and 
some of the more magnificent globes of the solar system, and of 
the immensity of the universe. If we entertain imperfect and 
contracted conceptions of the size of our globe, we shall be led 
to entertain similar contracted views of the celestial orbs, and of 
the amplitudes of creation. No adequate conception of the mag- 
nitude of our world can be conveyed to the young, by merely 
telling them that it is 8000 miles in diameter, and 25,000 in cir- 

17* 



198 NATURAL FEATURES OF THE GLOBE. 

cumference, and showing them its figure and the divisions on its 
surface by an artificial globe. For, in the first place, few of 
them have an accurate conception of the extent of one thousand 
miles, much less of twenty -Jive thousand ; and, in the next place, 
they are apt to fix their attention merely on the length of a line 
or a circle, without considering the extent of surface contained in 
a globe of the above dimensions ; and therefore, the number of 
square miles comprised in the superficies of the earth, amounting 
to nearly 200 millions, should always be specified, as that which 
conveys the most correct idea of the amplitude of our globe — 
and, in the last place, unless an ample prospect be presented to 
their view, and their attention fixed upon its multifarious objects, 
while such instructions are imparting, the illustrations of the mag- 
nitude of the earth will neither be clear nor impressive. In a 
private apartment, where the view is confined to the walls of the 
room, such instructions would lose a considerable part of their 
effect. 

Having thus impressed on the understandings of the pupils clear 
conceptions of the figure and magnitude of the earth, its leading 
divisions and grand natural outlines should next be presented to 
view. An eighteen-inch terrestrial globe should be placed before 
them, on which they should be directed to mark the great divisions 
of^ land and water — that the regions inhabited by man, and other 
terrestrial animals, lie between two expansive masses of water 
more than ten thousand miles in length, and one of them 
nearly the same in breadth, which cover about three-fourths of 
the surface of the globe — that the northern and southern portions 
of this watery mass are, for the most part, compacted into a body 
of solid ice ; that the other portions move backwards and for- 
wards in different directions by a kind of libratory motion, every 
12^ hours, producing the flux and reflux of the sea ; that currents, 
such as the gulf stream^ are found in different parts of the ocean, 
flowing unitbrmly in the same direction — that the land is divided 
into three principal portions or masses, the Eastern and Western 
continents, and the territory of New Holland, besides thousands of 
islands of every form and size, which diversify the surface of the 
ocean — that lofty ranges of mountains, some of them three or 
four miles in perpendicular height, run in different directions 
through these continents, some of them hundreds and even thou- 
sands of miles in extent — that hundreds of rivers, many of them 
above 2000 miles in length, have their rise in these elevated re- 
gions, and carry an immense body of waters into the ocean — that 
the ocean has been sounded with lines nearly a mile in length, 
when no bottom was found ; that it is probable, it is several miles 



GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. 199 

m depth, and that its bottom is diversified with mountains and 
vales like the surface of the dry land ; that it contains a mass of 
water sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of more 
than a mile and a half; and that, were its caverns drained, it 
would require more than 20,000 years before they could be filled 
by all the rivers running into it at their present rate, although 
they pour into its abyss 13,600 cubical miles of water every 
year — that the atmosphere surrounds the whole of this terraque- 
ous mass ; that by means of this atmosphere and the solar heat, 
a portion of the waters of the ocean is carried up to the region of 
the clouds in the form of vapour, and condensed into rain to 
supply the sources of the rivers, and to water and fertilize the 
earth — and that by these, and similar arrangements of Infinite 
Wisdom, the lives and comforts of myriads of animated beings 
throughout the regions of the earth, air, and ocean, are preserved 
and perpetuated. 

Such general views of the grand features of the globe, when 
occasionally enlivened with particular details of what is curious 
and novel to the young, cannot but arrest their attention, and ex 
cite their curiosity to acquire more minute information on the sub- 
ject ; while, at the same time, they have a tendency to inspire 
them with sublime and reverential ideas of that Almighty ^Being 
who, " laid the foundations of the earth, who causeth the vapours 
to ascend, who measureth the ocean in the hollow of his hand, 
who weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as 
a very little thing." After describing such general views, the 
attention may be directed to various other objects connected with 
the physical constitution of the globe, such as rocks and insulated 
mountains, promontories, isthmuses, caverns, icebergs, forests, 
mines, and deserts — volcanic mountains, and islands that have 
been raised from the bottom of the ocean by the force of subter- 
raneous agents — lakes, mediterranean seas, fountains, springs, 
whirlpools, gulfs, and water-spouts — the peculiarities of the dif- 
ferent zones — the climates, and the distribution of plants and 
animals in the different regions of the earth — the atmospherical 
phenomena in different countries, thunder, lightning, aurora-bore- 
alis, the monsoons, trade-winds, sea and land breezes, hurricanes, 
and tornadoes — the distribution of teniperatvre in different parts 
of the earth — the variety of seasons in the different zones, and 
the reasons why all the four seasons prevail at the same moment 
in different countries — the changes which have been produced 
on the surface of the globe by earthquakes, volcanoes, the 
action of water, the influence of the atmosphere, and the agency 
of man — the varieties of the human race, the population of the 



200 GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. 

globe, and the number of individuals that are dally ushered into 
existence, and of those who daily retire from the living world. 
To these views of natural scenery may next be added explana- 
tions of maps, and of the different circles on the artificial globe, 
of the nature of longitude and latitude, the division of the circle 
into degrees and minutes, the variety of days and nights, the 
reasons why the zones are hounded at particvlar degrees of 
latitvde by the tropics and polar circles, and the mode by which 
the circumference of the earth and its other dim.ensions have been 
determined. The explanations of astronomical geography, such 
as the causes of the different seasons, the annual and diurnal 
motions of the earth, and the niethod of finding the latitudes and 
longitudes of places, may be postponed till the pupil proceeds to 
the study of astronomy. 

In describing such objects as the above, and other departments 
of geography, illustrative maps and delineations, such as the fol- 
lowing, are requisite: — 1. A stereographic projection of the globe 
on the plane of the meridian, w^hich divides it into the eastern and 
v/estern hemispheres ; and another projection on the plane of the 
equator, having the poles in the centre, dividing the earth into the 
northern and southern hemispheres. Without this last projection, 
which is seldom exhibited in books of geography, the relative 
positions of countries in Asia, North America, and other regions, 
cannot be distinctly traced. On both these maps, the ranges of 
mountains which diversify the globe, and all the rivers which 
flow from them, should be particularly delineated, without any 
other objects or distinctions, except the names of the countries, 
seas, oceans, rivers, and mountain-chains, in order to present to 
the young mind, at one view, this grand and distinguishing fea- 
ture of our globe. For want of such maps on a large scale, ac- 
curately delineated, with the mountains and rivers represented in 
their proportional magnitudes, no accurate nor comprehensive 
ideas are generally entertained of this noble and interesting fea- 
ture of the terrestrial surface. Three or four extensive chains of 
mountains may be distinguished, from which flow numerous 
ramifications, and which, with some interruptions from the sea, 
extend nearly round the globe. One of these chains runs 
through Lapland, Finland, and Northern Russia, including the 
Ural mountains, sending forth branches in different directions. 
Another runs along the southern parts of Europe, including the 
Alps and Pyrenees — Hungary, Persia, Tibet, including the Hi- 
malaya, and, stretching in different directions, pass through China, 
Japan, and the Kurile islands towards Kamtschatka, from which 
another chain diverges, and establishes a connection with the 



GEOGRArHICAL DELINEATIONS. 201 

grand chain of the American continent. Another ridge runs 
along the southern hemisphere, through Africa, Paraguay, the 
islands of the Pacific, and New Holland ; and another extensive 
chain runs from north to south, along the whole length of Ame- 
rica, including the Andes, the Rocky and the Blue mountains. 
The pupils should be directed to trace these ranges, with all their 
different branches, not only along the continents, but across the 
oceans, where the tops of the higher ridges appear in the form of 
islands, their averasfe elevations remainino- below the level of the 
sea. — 2. Another delineation should consist of an elementary 
map, showing the various objects connected with geography : 
such as continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, promontories, 
mountains and plains, woods and forests — rivers, lakes, seas, 
gulfs, friths, straits, and channels — and the manner in which 
cities, towns, forts, roads, shoals, sand-banks, soundings, sunken 
rocks, and the direction of the winds, are represented in maps. — 
3. Delineations showing the proportional length and breadth of 
the principal rivers on the globe. This might, perhaps, be more 
distinctly exhibited by a number of rods of different lengths, gra- 
dually tapering to a point as the respective rivers diminish in 
breadth, from their mouths to their sources. Other delineations 
might represent their lengths, not in straight lines, but with all 
their curves and windings. — 4. A chart or delineation of the 
comparative size of countries, lakes, and islands ; so that the pro- 
portional spaces on the globe, occupied by such countries as Rus- 
sia, China, Great Britain, the United States, &c. may be perceiv- 
ed at a glance. These spaces may be represented either by 
squares, parallelograms, or circles. — 5. An Isothermal chart, 
showing the climates and vegetable productions of the earth ; in 
which the mean temperature of its different regions, the plants 
which flourish in them, the length of the longest days and nights, 
the divisions of the zones, and other particulars, may be distinct- 
ly noted. — 6. A chart of geographical zoology, showing the 
various tribes and species of animals with which the earth is 
peopled, and the several regions where the different species 
abound. The names of the animals mijj;ht be engraved instead 
of the names of towns, and if the chart was on a large scale, the 
figures of the most remarkable animals might likewise be en- 
graved. — 7. A map of Africa and America, and the Atlantic 
ocean lying between them, on the same sheet, for the purpose of 
exhibiting, at one vie^v, the whole Atlantic, with its islands, and 
the relative positions of the coasts of Africa and South America. 
Also, another map, on the same scale, representing the eastern 
parts of Asia and New Holland on the one hand, and on the 



202 GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. 

Other, the western coast of America, M'ith the Pacific ocean, and 
its numerous groups of islands which intervene, for the purpose 
of showino- the nearest approach which the old and new continents 
make to each other, and the relative positions of the islands and 
countries connected with the Pacific. — 8. A map or chart of 
Moral geography, exhibiting the prevailing religion of the several 
countries, and the moral state of their inhabitants, which might 
be distinguished, either by different colours or by diflfercnt shades 
in the engraving. In this map the countries enlightened by 
Christianity, and those which are still shrouded in Pagan dark- 
ness, might be exhibited at one view ; for the purpose of showing 
to the young what an immense portion of the world is still im- 
mersed in heathen ignorance and idolatry, and what exertions 
are still requisite for enlightening the benighted notions ; and for 
the purpose of stimulating them to bear a part in those philan- 
thropic movements which are now going forward for the enlight- 
ening and renovation of the world. — 9. Views of cities, public 
buildings, mountains, caves, grottos, volcanoes, interesting land- 
scapes, and whatever scenes or objects are most striking on the 
surface of the globe. Some of these views might be exhibited by 
the optical diagonal machine formerly described. — 10. Sets of 
coloured maps of the quarters of the globe, and its different 
countries, delineated in the usual way. — 11. A projection of the 
globe on the horizon of the particular country where the pupils 
reside, for the purpose of showing the bearings and distances of 
places from the country in which they are placed. — 12. Slate 
globes, on which the pupil may trace with a pencil the circles of 
the sphere, the ranges of mountains, the course of rivers, the out- 
lines of continents and islands, and whatever else may tend to 
familiarize his mind to the general arrangements of the earth. 
On such globes mistakes may be remedied and inaccuracies cor- 
rected by the application of the sponge ; and, after the pijpil has 
been for some time accustomed to such delineations, he will soon 
acquire a clear and comprehensive view of the outlines of the 
globe, and become familiar with the relative positions of its con- 
tinents, seas, and islands. — 13. Delineations of the comparative 
heights of the principal mountains on the globe — the mountains 
in the eastern and western hemispheres being arranged in two 
separate groups. On the same sheet might likewise be delineat- 
ed, comparative views of the heights of different ranges, arrang- 
ing them into six or seven classes, beginning with views of such 
mountains as those of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, which do 
not much exceed 4000 feet, and gradually proceeding to such as 
the Cordilleras and the Himalaya, whose summits reach an elcva- 



MORAL GEOGRAPHY. 203 

tion of above 20,000 feet. — 14. Models of particular countries 
might occasionally be made of wax or other materials, particular- 
ly of mountainous regions, for the purpose of exhibiting an idea 
of the scenery of a country, the windings of its rivers, and the 
comparative height of its mountains above the general level of its 
surface. No map can convey an idea of such particulars, or of 
the general appearance and prominent features of any country, 
similar to that of a well-executed model. I have seen in the 
Museum of the University of Edinburgh, several models of the 
kind to which I allude, of the vales and mountainous regions of 
Switzerland, in which the position of the towns, the course of the 
rivers, the lakes, the lines of roads, the vales, the rocks, the 
forests, and the comparative elevation of the mountains, are ex- 
hibited, as if one were looking down upon the country from the 
clouds. The only objection to such models would be the difficulty 
of getting them executed, and the consequent expense which would 
be incurred. But, if one model were accurately executed, others 
could easily be taken from it, on the same principle as phreno- 
logists take casts of the human skull. 

By the assistance of such maps and delineations, and with the 
aid of a judicious text-book, comprising a comprehensive view 
of the outlines of physical, mathematical, civil, statistical, and 
historical geography, an enlightened teacher will be enabled 
gradually to lead his pupils forward to luminous views of this 
interesting subject. In describing the different countries, he 
should give a comprehensive outline of whatever is peculiar to 
each country, and select, for particular description, whatever in- 
teresting objects of nature or art may have a tendency to excite 
the attention and gratify the curiosity of his pupils, referring them 
to their larger systems of geography for more minute details. In 
such descriptions, the details of moral, statistical, and religious 
geography should occupy a more prominent place than they 
generally do in our systems of geography and scholastic courses 
on this subject. The statistics of our own country, of the various 
states of Europe, and particularly of the United States of America, 
which are very imperfectly known, and respecting which there 
exist numerous misconceptions and unreasonable prejudices on 
this side of the Atlantic, should be particularly detailed. The 
moral and mental degradation of the heathen world ; the mission- 
ary stations which have been fixed in different parts of it for 
counteracting the influence of barbarism and idolatry, and dif- 
fusing the light of divine knowledge ; the various success which 
has accompanied such undertakings ; and the philanthropic en- 
terprises which are now going forward in different countries for 



204 GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. 

the moral renovation of mankind, should be depicted to the view 
of the young with all the vividness and energy which the import- 
ance of such subjects demands, in order to allure them to the 
consideration of such objects, and to secure their endeavours in 
promoting them. It is a striking and melancholy feature in the 
records of our race, that almost the whole of history and historical 
geography is occupied with details of the miseries of mankind, 
produced by ambition, avarice, and injustice, the tyranny of 
despots, and the desolations of war ; and that scarcely a bright 
spot can be perceived on the surface of the globe, and amidst the 
gloomy records of past generations, on which the eye of benevo- 
lence can rest with unmingled delicrht. Hence it has happened, 
that we have scarcely a history of the operations of pure philan- 
thropy, except in the instance of our Saviour and his apostles. 
And now, when philanthropic plans have been formed, and 
benevolent enterprises are carrying on, our geographers and men 
of science, so long accustomed to blaze abroad the exploits of am- 
bition and malignity, will scarcely condescend to notice or record 
the operations by which the moral world is beginning to be en- 
lightened and regenerated. This is not what it ought to be, or 
what we ought to expect from those who are engaged in the dif- 
fusion of knowledge. All knowledo;e should be directed so as to 
have a moral bearing, and to stimulate the mental activities of the 
young to those benevolent exertions by which the best interests 
of their fellow-men, in every land, may be promoted. 

Geographical compendiums for the use of schools should be 
clear and comprehensive in their details, and enlivened with occa- 
sional picturesque descriptions of human scenery and of natural 
and artificial objects, which may be illustrated with neat en- 
gravings. They should also abound with questions and exercises 
of every description connected with the subject, to afford scope 
for the industry of the pupil, and for the exercise of his judgment 
and reasoning powers. But, however excellent the plan and de- 
tails of any school-book may be, it ought by no means to be con- 
sidered as superseding the more familiar illustrations of the 
teacher, and the conversational lectures alluded to above. No man 
can be a successful teacher of this science, but he who has a 
familiar and comprehensive knowledge of all the subjects con- 
nected with it, and who can, at any time, illustrate its principles 
and facts by viva voce descriptions and elucidations, which al- 
ways make a deeper impression on the young mind than can be 
produced by the mere perusal of the best treatises. In working 
the usual problems on the terrestrial globe, (some of which are 
of little practical importance,) due care should be taken, that the 



GEOGRAPHICAL HOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. 205 

pupils be not guided merely by the rules given for the respective 
problems, bftt that they understand the reasons why they turn 
the globe in this or that direction — elevate the pole to a certain 
degree above the horizon — or set the horary circle to a given hour. 
In problems which have a reference to the difference of time at 
different places, they may be taught to perform the operations by 
a mental calculation, and to ascertain, in the course of a few se- 
conds, what nations have noon, midnight, morning or evening, at 
a given hour, or summer or wintei*, spring or autumn, on a given 
day or month. In commencing the study of geography, a plan or 
map of the town or village in which the pupils are taught, along 
with the adjacent country, and some of its prominent objects, 
might be laid before them, as introductory to the study and expla- 
nation of maps. On this map, they might be directed to attend 
to the cardinal points of the compass, the boundaries of the town, 
the streamlets or rivers, ponds or hills, and the bearings of the 
different streets, lanes, public buildings, and other objects, from 
each other ; and various questions and exercises in reference to 
such objects might be proposed, which would excite a spirit of 
observation, and prepare them for understanding maps of coun- 
tries on a larger scale. A map of the county, and then a map 
of the state or kingdom, might next form the subject of attention, 
which would prepare them for the study of the particular quarter 
of the globe in which they reside, and of all the other countries, 
seas, and oceans, dispersed over the surface of the earth. This 
plan is evidently in conformity to the order of nature, although 
directly opposite to the order generally pursued.* 

* Since writing the preceding parts of this work, I have been favoured, 
through the liberality of a respected literary correspondent in the State of 
Connecticut, North America, with a variety of school-books on geography 
and other subjects, which have an extensive circulation in the New-England 
States. Among these are the following: — 1. Woodbridge's "System of 
Universal Geography, on the principles of comparison and classification. 
5th edition, 1833." This work, comprised in a thick 12nio. volume of 
500 very closely printed pages, comprehends an immense mass of inform- 
ation on physical, civil, and statistical geography, including descriptions 
of a great variety of facts in relation to the geological structure of the 
earth. It is illustrated by nearly a hundred engravings of natural and arti- 
ficial objects ; such as sections of rivers, canals, comparative elevation of 
mountains, cataracts, races of man, geological sections, cities and public 
buildings, which both enliven and elucidate the descriptions. Appended to 
this work, is a lucid and judicious compend of " Ancient Geography, as 
connected with Chronology," including sketches of sacred history, mytho- 
logy, and the early history of mankind, by Mrs. Vv''i!Iard — a lady who ap- 
pears to have made considerable researches into the different departments 
of geographical science, and to have promoted the cause of general educa* 

18 



206 GEOLOGY. 

Section VII. — Geology. 

Geology is a science which, of late years, has excited the atten- 
tion of philosophers, naturalists, and theologians; and, in conse- 

tion. Both these works are admirably calculated for the higher classes in 
schools, and abound with a great number of questions and exercises, for 
stimulating the attention and ingenuity of the young. Had this volume 
been sparsely printed, according'to the fashion that prevailed 20 or 30 years 
ago, like *' Playfair's Geography," and other works, it would have occupied 
two or three quarto volumes of 1500 pages, — 2. Woodbridge's " Rudiments 
of Geography, on a new plan," 18mo. containing 203 closely printed pages, 
and about 170 cuts, and comprising a very considerable portion of informa- 
tion on the different departments of geography. It may be considered as 
partly an abridgment of the larger work noticed above, and partly an intro- 
duction to it. I'he cuts, though small, are sufficiently vivid and distinct to 
convey an accurate idea of the objects they are intended to represent. It 
has passed through seventeen editions, comprising more than 200,000 copies. 
Mr. Woodbridge is a corresponding member of the Geographical Society of 
Paris, and Editor of the American " Annals of Education ;" and a gentle- 
man who appears to be quite familiar with all the departments of geogi'a- 
phical, physical, and mathematical science. His geographical works are 
rich in information in respect to ever}' topic connected with his general sub- 
ject, and have received the approbation of the Geographical Society of Paris, 
and of many scientific characters on the continent of Europe, particularly 
Humboldt and Fellenberg. — 3. " A Practical System of Modern Geography," 
by J. Olney, A. M. — an 18mo. of 288 pages, closely printed on a plan some- 
what similar to Woodbridge's Rudiments, illustrated wiih nearly a hundred 
engravings, and containing a very considerable portion of useful informa- 
tion. This work has passed through lifteen editions. — 4. " The Malte-Brun 
School Geography," by Mr. Goodrich, a large ISmo. volume of nearly 300 
pages, and containing about 133 engravings. This work contains a larger 
quantity of letter-press than the two former, and a great variety of facts in 
relation to civil and descriptive geography, but is not so full as "Woodbridge's 
volumes in its details of pli'f'n'cal and statistical geography. Fifteen thou- 
sand copies of this w^ork were sold in the space of eighteen months from 
the date of its first publication. The .Atlases belonging to these works are 
beautifully executed, and contain several of the projections i have suggested 
above, besides sets of maps as usuall}^ delineated, along with a variety of 
useful descriptions and statistical tables. In the Atlas which accompanies 
Olney's " Practical System," the population of the respective towns and 
cities can be ascertained at a glance, by means of certain characters and 
figures connected with their names. Hall's "Child's Book of Geography," and 
Peter Parley's " Geography for Children, " each of them containing about a 
hundred pages, in a square 18mo. size, and embellished with a variety of 
maps and cuts, appear well calculated to interest the minds of youth, and to 
convey a general idea of the leading features of the world. Some of the 
above works, with a few alterations, might be published with advantage in 
Great Britain. They contain more i)articular maps and descriptions of the 
United States than are to be found in geographical works published on this 
side of the Atlantic. A com])rchensive and useful compend of geography, 
for the use of schools, might be compiled from the volumes now mentioned, 



GEOLOGY. 207 

quence of the researches of its votaries, many striking and 
important facts in relation to the structure of the earth and the 
changes it has undergone, have been brought to light. Many of 
the facts which this science discloses have a tendency to convey 
to the mind impressions of the wisdom, and particularly of the 
powe?' of the Creator, in those stupendous forces which produced 
the convulsions and changes which have taken place both on the 
surface and in the interior strata of the globe. They are likewise 
applicable to various practical purposes. A minute and circum- 
stantial knowledge of the various facts which have been ascer- 
tained by geologists in different countries, may be of extensive 
use to those employed in mining operations, when searching for 
coal, fossil salt, or metallic veins, and might prevent many ruin- 
ous speculations to which ignorant projectors are frequently sub- 
jected. In excavations for the purpose of forming canals, tunnels, 
and rail- roads — operations which are now going forward in almost 
every part of the civilized world — a knowledge of this subject 
could not fail to be highly beneficial to all parties engaged in such 
projects. Besides, the study of this science is intimately connected 
with Scripture history and theology, and its facts, when viewed 
in a proper light, have a tendency to elucidate certain portions of 
the Sacred writings, and to illustrate the harmony and the connec- 
tion which subsist between the visible operations of the Creator 
and the revelations of his word. For these reasons, it might be 
expedient to communicate to the young a general idea of some of 
the leading facts connected with geology, without perplexing them 
with any of the speculations of philosophers, or the theories which 
have been formed to account for geological phenomena ; leaving 
them to deduce their own conclusions at a future period, when 
their "knowledge of such subjects shall be increased, and their 
judgment matured. 

A brief description might be given, in the first place, of the 
solid parts of the earth, of the various strata of which they are 
composed, and of the classifications which geologists have made 
of the different kinds o^ rocks. These rocks are usually arranged 
under the following classes: — 1. Primary rocks, which compose 
the grand framework of the globe, which form the most lofty 
mountains, and extend to the greatest depths yet penetrated by 
man, and below all the other formations. The substances of which 
such rocks are composed, are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, horn- 
blend, granular quartz, &c. but never contain salt, coal, petrifac- 

by selecting the descriptions, exercises, and more interesting portions of 
each, and combining them into a volume calculated for the meridian of 
our own country. 



208 GEOLOGY. 

tions, or any remains whatever of organized substances ; and 
therefore arc supposed to have been formed before the creation 
of animals or vegetables. — 2. Transition rocks, which include 
those rocks that lie over the primitive, and are composed of the 
larger fragments of the primitive rocks. They contain graywacke, 
transition limestone, slate, sandstone, &c. Shells are sometimes 
found in them, but no remains of land animals or vegetables. It 
is supposed they were formed next after the primitive rocks, and 
after the creation of some kinds of organized beings. — 3. Second- 
ary rocks, which lie upon the transition rocks, and appear like 
deposites, composed of grains which once belonged to primitive 
rocks. The principal secondary formations are coal, chalk, sec- 
ondary limestone, oolite, millstone, grit, &c. which contain pet- 
rifactions of animal and vegetable substances. — 4. Tertiary 
strata, which consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, and the newer 
limestone deposites. These formations are considered as newer 
than the secondary, and contain abundance of fossil shells and 
plants, along with the bones of quadrupeds and fishes. — 5. Vol- 
canic and basaltic rocks, which owe their origin to volcanic fire, 
and are sometimes forced up to the surface of the earth in a melt- 
ed state, by the action of subterraneous heat. The principal vol- 
canic rocks are basalt, lava, and greenstone. — 6. Alluvial strata, 
which include deposites that are made of broken strata, consisting 
of sand, mud, clay, pebbles, &c. which are formed by the cur- 
rents of rivers, and other causes now in operation. 

These classifications of rocks and formations mis:ht be illus- 
trated by such figures as in the annexed cut, which is taken from 
AVoodbridge's "System of Universal Geography," where Fig. 1. 
represents the strata of the earth, P the primary strata, T tran- 
sition, S secondary, A Alluvial, B basaltic, V vein, b bed. Fig. 
2, represents a section of the earth between latitude 40° and 45° 
north. In conjunction with such pictorial representations, a cabi- 
net of materials should be procured, containing at least the fol- 
lowing : quartz, mica, talc, feldspar, limestone, argillite, or slate, 
hornblend, gypsum and chlorite, which form what has been 
termed the alphabet of geology. Besides these, specimens should 
be procured of basalt, gneiss, greenstone, lava, porphyry, gray- 
wacke, and other substances mentioned above. About thirty 
specimens in all are sufficient for illustrating the classes of geology. 
Without an exhibition of these, in connection with geological de- 
scriptions, no definite ideas can be conveyed to the mind of the 
student on this subject.* 

* Books on geology have, of late years, increased both in number and in 
the interesting nature of the discussions they contain. The names of 



209 





210 ASTRONOMY. 

Section VIII. — Astronomy. 

Astronomy is a science which has for its object to explain the 
motions of the heavenly bodies, their various aspects, and the 
facts which have been ascertained in the planetary system, and 
throuo-hout the region of the fixed stars. This is a subject of 
considerable interest and utility. It is intimately connected with 
geography, navigation, agriculture, commerce, chronology, and 
other arts and sciences, and has lent its aid to promote tlieir im- 
provement. The study of it is likewise attended with many 
pleasures and advantages in a moral, intellectual, and religious 
point of view. It expands the range of the human intellect, and 
unfolds to our view the most striking displays of the perfections 
of the Deity, particularly the grandeur of his Omnipotetice. It 
sets before us objects of overpowering magnitude and sublimity, 
and demonstrates the unlimited extent and magnificence of the 
universal empire of the Almighty. It has a tendency to raise 
the soul above grovelling pursuits and affections, to inspire hope, 
reverence, and humility, and to excite to the contemplation of 
objects far surpassing every thing we behold in this terrestrial 
scene, and worthy of the dignity of immortal minds. In short, 
it prepares the mind for the employments of the future world, 
and demonstrates, that the Creator has it in his power to dis- 
tribute endlessly diversified streams of felicity, among every 
order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all the revolutions 
of eternity. It is a subject, therefore, on which a certain portion 
of information should be communicated to the young, and to 
every human being. 

In communicating to the young instructions on this subject — 
instead of commencing with definitions of astronomical terms, 
and a vague description of the solar system, as is frequently done, 
— the pupils should be gradually prepared for acquiring a general 
knowledge of the principles of the science, by being taught to 

Bakewell, Macculloch, Delabeche, Buckland, Ure, Lyell, &c. are well known 
as cultivators of this department of natural science. The new edition of 
Mr. Lyell's " Principles of Geology," in 4 vols. 12ino. lately published, is 
perhaps one of the most luminous and attractive works which has hitherto 
been published on this subject — though perhaps somewhat deficient in what 
relates to the primary and secondary rocks, and embodying certain state- 
ments which some will be apt to consider as scarcely consistent with tlie 
records of sacred history. Dr. Comstock, of Hartford, State of Connecticut, 
has lately published, in a duodecimo vol. of about 340 pages, an interesting 
work, entitled, " Outlines of Geology," which contains a pofmlar and com- 
prehensive view of this subject, and is peculiarly adapted to the instruction 
of general readers. 



MOTIONS OF TIIi: SUN AND MOON. 211 

ohserve, witJi their own eyes^ the motions and general phenomena 
of the heavens. The first object to which their attention might 
be directed, is the apparent motion of the smi. On some clear 
evening, in the month of June, (in our northern latitude,) they 
may be placed in a situation where they may behold the setting 
sun, and be desired to take particular notice of such objects as 
mark the place of his going down. Next morning, or the first 
clear morning afterwards, they may be placed in the same situa- 
tion, and, having first requested them to point to the place where 
the sun disappeared the evening before, their attention should next 
be directed to the point of his rising, and to mark the terrestrial 
objects in the direction of which he appeared to rise. The dif- 
ference between the points of his setting and of his rising should 
be particularly impressed upon their minds. On this day, too, 
about twelve o'clock, they should be directed to attend to the sun's 
meridian altitude. These observations may either be accompanied 
with certain appropriate remarks, or the pupils may be left, in the 
meantim.e, to ruminate upon them, to consider them simply as 
facts, which may be afterwards adverted to, and to form their 
own conclusions. Similar observations may be made from the 
same spot about the 23d September, and particularly about the 
middle of December, when the direction of the rising and setting 
sun, his meridian altitude, and the apparent diurnal arc he de- 
scribes, will appear very different, when compared with the ob- 
servations made in the month of June. Their attention might 
next be directed to the phases and motions of the moon. About 
three days after new moon, when the lunar crescent first makes 
its appearance, they may be directed to mark the form of the 
crescent, the most conspicuous stars in its vicinity, and its appa- 
rent distance from the place where the sun went down. Every 
clear evening afterwards, the gradual increase of the crescent, its 
motion among the stars, and the apparent distance it has moved 
during everj'^ successive period, should be particularly marked, 
till it arrive at the eastern part of the horizon after the sun has 
set in the west, when it will appear a full enlightened hemisphere. 
During the months of August, September, and October, when the 
effect of the harvest-moon is apparent, they may be directed to 
trace the gradual diminution of the full moon, through its differ- 
ent stages of decrease, till it assume the form of a half moon or 
a large crescent. During the months of March or April, their at- 
tention may be directed to the difference in the time of its rising 
on each successive day after full moon, from what takes place 
during the months of harvest, — in the one case, namely, in har- 
vest, there being only 20 minutes of difference after full moon, in 



212 THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

its rising on each sLiccessivo day ; while in spring, the difference 
is nearly an hour and a half, which prevents her, at that season, 
from being seen in the form of a half-moon, during her decrease, 
till early in the morning ; — whereas, in harvest, she may be seen 
rising in the north-east, in the form of a half-moon, about 8 or 
9 in the evening. 

They may next be directed to attend to some of the principal 
stars, and the more conspicuous constellations, and particularly 
to the apparent diurnal motion of the whole celestial vault. The 
month of January is perhaps the most eligible season for such 
observations. About the middle of that month, at eight o'clock 
in the evening, the most striking and brilliant constellations visible 
in the northern hemisphere are then above the horizon. The 
Pleiades or Seven stars, and other portions of the constellation 
Taurus, are nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of above 60 
degrees. The splendid constellation Orion, to the south of Tay- 
rus, is a little to the east of the meridian ; Canis Minor to the 
east, and Canis Major to the south-east of Orion. Nearly due 
east, and near the horizon, is the zodiacal constellation Leo. To 
the west of the meridian are the constellations Aries, Pisces, 
Cetus, Aandromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia, which is not far 
from the zenith. To the north-east is Ursa Major, or the Great 
Bear, sometimes distinguished by the name of the Plough, or 
Charleses Wain. — The star Aldeharan, or the Bull's eye, is 
nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of 54°, supposing the 
place of observation to be in 52° north latitude. It is distinguished 
by its ruddy appearance. The brilliant star Capella is nearly 
32° north by east from Aldeharan, not far from the zenith ; and 
Rigel, in the left foot of Orion, is about 27° south by east of Al- 
deharan, and a little east of the meridian. Betelgeux is north- 
east from Rigel, and forms a right-angled triangle with it and 
Aldeharan. The stars Castor and Pollux are east by north from 
Aldeharan, at a considerable distance from it, (45°,) and nearly 
halfway between the zenith and the eastern horizon. Nearly 
straight south from Pollux and east from Betelgeux, is Procyon. 
These three stars form a right-angled triangle, the star Procyon 
being at the right angle. Near the south-eastern part of the hori- 
zon, and a little elevated above it, is Sirius, or the Dog-star, 
which is generally reckoned the most brilliant fixed star in the 
heavens. West from Rigel, at a considerable distance, (46°,) 
and at nearly the same elevation above the horizon, is 3Iira, or 
the Wonderful star, which changes from a star of the second 
magnitude, so as to become invisible once in a period of 334 days. 
The brilliant star Lyra is north-north-west, very near the horizon. 



DIURNAL MOTION OF THE HEAVENS. 213 

The two stars in the Great Bear, called the Pointers, are in a 
direction nearly north-cast from Castor and Pollux, but at a con- 
siderable distance ; they direct the eye to a star of the second 
magnitude, in Ursa Minor, at a considerable distance towards 
the west, called Ahritccahah , or the Polestar. 

Having pointed out these leading stars and constellations, to 
serve as so many known points in the heavens, the attention 
might be directed, on a subsequent evening, about six o'clock, to 
the apparent motions of these bodies, and of the whole celestial 
sphere. On the evening of January 16th, at six o'clock, the star 
Procyon will be seen nearly due east, a very little above the hori- 
zon ; Aldebaran, in an easterly direction, nearly halfway between 
the meridian and the eastern horizon : Rigel, towards the south- 
east, a little above the horizon ; and Lyra, in the north-west, 
about 15 degrees above the horizon. Having marked the terres- 
trial objects which appear in the direction of these stars, they may 
be viewed, from the same station, about two hours afterwards, 
when Procyon will be found to have risen a considerable way 
above the horizon ; Rigel, to have moved nearly 30 degrees to 
the westward ; and Aldebaran, to have arrived near the meridian ; 
while Lyra has descended within two or three degrees of the hori- 
zon ; and Sirius, which was before under the horizon, is elevated 
about ten degrees above it. At ten o'clock, the same evening, 
Rigel and Aldebaran will be seen at a considerable distance west- 
ward of the meridian ; Sirius, within 6 or 7 degrees of it ; the star 
Lyra, near the northern horizon ; and the constellation Orion, 
which in the first observation appeared in the direction south-east 
by east, will be found to have moved to the loestward of the me- 
ridian. By such observations, it may be shown that the whole 
starry firmament has an apparent diurnal motion from east to 
west. While pointing out these apparent motions to the young, 
it will be proper to direct their attention to the pole-star, which, 
to a common observer, never appears to shift its position. They 
may likewise be directed to notice that the stars near the pole 
appear to move slov/er, and to describe smaller circles than those 
at a greater distance from it — that those which rise near the south 
describe smaller arcs than those which rise farther to the north — 
that the stars which rise due east, set due west, after an interval 
of twelve hours — that the stars which rise in the north-east, after 
describing a large arc of the heavens, set in the north-west, after 
an interval of about seventeen hours — that all the stars within a 
certain distance of the pole never appear to rise or set, but describe 
complete circles above the horizon — that the stars near the pole, 
such as those in the Great Bear, appear in one part of their course 



214 ANNUAL MOTION OF THE SUN. 

to move from west to east, and in another part of it from east to 
west — and that the revolutions of the whole, however different 
the circles they apparently describe, are completed in exactly the 
same period of time. These positions may afterwards be more 
particularly illustrated by means of a large celestfal globe, by 
which it will be seen that all these appearances are the result of 
one general apparent motion, which, at first view, will a[)pear to 
exist in the celestial sphere.' An idea of the general motion of 
the stars may be acquired by a simpler process than what we 
have now described. Let any observer bring a star, in any posi- 
tion between the zenith and southern horizon, into an apparent 
contact with a tree, spire, or chimney-top, and, in the course of 
fifteen or twenty minutes, he will perceive that that star and 
others adjacent to it have moved a little space from east to west. 
But the observations alluded to above are calculated to give a 
more satisfactory idea of this motion, and to make a deeper im- 
pression on the minds of the young. 

The next series of observations might be those which demon- 
strate the apparent annual motion of the svn. For the purpose 
of exhibiting this motion, the Pleiades, or seven stars, along with 
Aldebaran, might be selected as fixed points in the heavens to 
indicate the progressive motion of the solar orb towards the east. 
About the middle of January, at eight o'clock in the evening, the 
Pleiades will be seen on the meridian ; which observation should 
be noted down, for the purpose of being compared with a future 
observation. On the 1st March, at the same hour, these stars 
will be seen nearly halfway between the meridian and the western 
horizon, while all the other stars, at the same declination, will be 
found to have made a similar progress. About the 15th April, 
they will be seen, at the same hour, very near the western hori- 
zon ; and every day after this, they will appear to make a nearer 
approach to that part of the heavens in which the sun appears, 
till, being overpowered by the splendour of his rays, they cease 
to be visible. From these and similar observations, it will be easy 
to make the young perceive, that the sun has an apparent motion 
from west to east, through the circle of the heavens, and that the 
revolution is completed in the course of a year. 

They may next be taught to acquire a definite idea of the mea- 
sures by which the apparent distances of objects in the heavens 
are expressed. To talk to the young, as some are in the practice 
of doing, of two stars being a foot, a 3'^ard, or two yards asunder, 
is altogether vague and indefinite, unless we are told, at the same 
time, at what distance the j^ard or foot is supposed to be placed 
from our eye. As astronomers divide the circumference of the 



MEASU^Sa^THf CELESTIAL SPHERE. 215 

celestial sphere into 360 parts or degreSh, Kbey niay be told, that 
from any point of the horizon to the zenith are 90 ut.^,--^.,, g^^j^j 
consequently, that from the eastern to the western, or from l\.~ 
northern to the southern points of the horizon, are 180 degrees. 
And, in order that they may have a definite idea, or something 
approximating to it, of the extent of a degree, they may be told 
that the breadtli of the moon is about half a degree — that the 
space occupied by the three stars in a straight line in the belt of 
Orion — sometimes distinguished by the name of the Three Kings, 
or the Ell and Yard — is exactly 3 degrees in length, and, con- 
sequently, the distance between any two of them is a degree and 
a half — that the distance between Castor and Pollux is nearly 
5 degrees — between Dubbe and Merah^ the two Pointers, in the 
Great Bear, is 5^ degrees — and that the space between Dubbe, or 
the northermost pointer, and the polestar, is about 29 degrees. 
By familiarizing the mind with such measures, the young will 
soon acquire a tolerable idea of the distance of any two objects 
in the heavens, when the number of degrees is mentioned. 

All the observations above stated may be made, in the way of 
an amusement, previous to the time when the pupils are expected 
to enter on the regular study of astronomy. They may be com- 
pleted in the course often or twelve observations, made at different 
times, within the space of seven or eight months. They are in- 
tended for the purpose of stimulating the young to habits of ob- 
servation and attention to the appearances of nature around them ; 
so that, in every clear sky, they may learn to make similar ob- 
servations by themselves, for confirming and amplifying their 
former views of the motions and aspects of the heavens. Such 
observations form the groundwork of astronomy, and of all the 
instructions they may afterwards receive in relation to this science, 
although they are generally neglected. When problems on the 
celestial globe are prescribed, and vague descriptions of the plane- 
tary system given, previous to having made these observations, 
the subject is seldom understood, and no clear nor expansive con- 
ceptions formed by the young, of the motions, phenomena, and 
relations of the great bodies of the universe. — It may not be 
necessary, in the first instance, while making these observations, 
to attempt any explanation of the phenomena, but merely to im- 
press upon the mind a clear conception of the appai'ent motions, 
and relative aspects, of the celestial orbs, as they present them- 
selves to an attentive spectator; leaving the pupil to ruminate 
upon them till it shall be judged proper to direct his attention to 
the investigation of the true causes of celestial phenomena. 

The pupil's attention might next be directed to the motions of 



216 APPARENT MOTIONS 0F^,;Ef^jE-5^NETS. 

the planets, anH/lr.lo general phenomena of the solar system. 
When '^any of the planets are visible in the heavens, their positions 
'ill' relation to the neighbouring stars should be particularly noted, 
so that their apparent motions, whether direct or retrograde^ 
may be clearly perceived, which, in most cases, will be quite per- 
ceptible in the course of a few weeks or months. The direct, 
stationary, and retrograde movements of Mars and Venus should 
be particularly attended to, for the purpose of afterwards demon- 
strating that the annual motion of the earth accounts for the ap- 
parently irregular and complicated motions of the planetary orbs. 
Large diagrams, representing the apparent motions of Mars, Mer- 
cury, and Venus, as seen from the earth during the course of 
several revolutions, with all the apparently irregular loops and 
curves they appear to describe* — should be laid before the pupil 
for his particular inspection, in order that he may perceive the 
improbability that such motions are real, or that an Infinitely 
Wise Being, who is the Perfection of Order, would introduce 
such inextricable confusion into the motions of the most splendid 
of his works — A common planetarium, which shows by wheel- 
work, the relative motions of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and 
Mars, may be easily made to illustrate these motions, and to solve 
all their phenomena. Let a circle, two or three inches broad, 
and of such a diameter as to surround the planets, with a few 
stars marked on its inside to represent the Zodiac, be suspended 
on three pillars, so as to enclose the Earth, Mercury, and Venus. 
Let a wire be fixed by a socket, on the top of the pillar which 
supports the ball representing the Earth, and let this wire rest 
on a slit or fork fixed to the top of the pillar which supports the 
ball representing Mercury. When the machine is set in motion, 
the wire will point out on the Zodiac the apparent motions of 
Mercury as seen from the earth. When he passes from his 
greatest elongation westward to the superior conjunction and to 
his greatest elongation eastward, the wire will move eastward, 
according to the order of the signs. About its greatest elongation, 
it will appear stationary, and immediately afterwards will move 
westivard, or contrary to the order of the signs, till it arrive at 
the western elongation, when it will again appear stationary ; — 
so that the pupil will plainly perceive that the direct and retro- 
grade motions of the planets, as seen from the earth, are in per- 
fect accordance with a regular circular motion around the sun as 
a centre ; and that such apparently irregular movements arise from 

* Specimens of such diagrams may be seen in " Long's Astronomy," vol. 
i. and in plate 3 of " Ferguson's Astronomy," Brewster's edition. 



PROOFS OF THE EARTh's DIURNAL MOTION. 217 

the motion of the earth, and the different velocities of the planets, 
when compared with it, — just as the objects around us appear to 
move in different directions, and with different velocities, when 
we are sailing along a serpentine river in a steam-boat. 

The arguments or considerations which prove that the Earth 
is a moving hody^ should next be presented to the attention, and 
illustrated in the most simple and familiar manner of which the 
subject will admit. The pupil will easily be made to perceive, 
that, if the earth is at rest, the whole frame of the material uni- 
verse must move round it every twenty-four hours ; — not only the 
fixed stars, but the sun and moon, the planets and their satellites, 
and every comet which traverses the firmament, must participate 
in this motion, while, at the same time, they are moving in an- 
other and an opposite course peculiar to themselves. He will 
perceive, that, in proportion as these bodies are distant from the 
earth, in a similar proportion will be the velocity vf[\h. which they 
perform their diurnal revolutions — that the sun behoved to move 
Jive hundred and ninety-seven millions of miles every day, the 
nearest fixed star 125,000,000,000,000 of miles in the same time, 
or at the rate of fourteen hundred millions of miles every second, 
and the most distant stars with a velocity which neither words 
can express, nor imagination conceive, — and that such motions, 
if they actually existed, would, in all probability, shatter the whole 
material frame of the universe to atoms. He may be directed to 
consider, that such rapid velocities (if they could be supposed to 
exist) are not the motions of mere points or small luminous balls, 
but the motions of immense globes, many thousands of times 
larger than the earth — that a hundred millions of such globes are 
visible from our abode, besides the myriads that may be hid from 
human view in the unexplored regions of space — and that it is 
impossible to conceive how all these innumerable globes, of dif- 
ferent magnitudes, at different distances, and moving with differ- 
ent velocities, could be so adjusted as to finish their diurnal 
revolutions at the same moment, while many of them are at the 
same time impelled by other forces in a contrary direction. He 
may be reminded that the Creator, who formed the universe, is 
possessed of Infinite Wisdom — that wisdom consists in propor- 
tionating means to ends^ or in selecting the most appropriate ar- 
rangements in order to accomplish an important purpose — that to 
make the whole frame of Universal Nature move round the earth 
every day, merely to produce the alternate succession of day and 
night, is repugnant to every idea we ought to entertain of the 
Wisdom and Intelligence of the Divine Mind, since the same effect 
;an be produced by a simple rotation of the earth in twenty-four 

19 



219 ANNUAL REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH. 

hours ; and since we find that Jupiter and Saturn, and other globes 
much larger than ours, move round their axes in a shorter period — 
that in all the other works of Omnipotence, means apparently the 
most simple are selected to accomplish the most grand and mag- 
nificent designs — and that there is no example known to us, 
throughout the universe, of a larger body revolving around a 
smaller. When such considerations are fully and familiarly illus- 
trated, the pupil will soon be made clearly to perceive, that the 
rotation of the earth must necessarily be admitted, and that it will 
fully account for all the diversity of diurnal motion which appears 
in the sun and moon, the planets and the stars. 

The annual revolution of the earth, and its position in the solar 
system, might be proved and illustrated by such considerations as 
the following : — that if this motion did not exist, the motions of 
all the planets would present a scene of inextricable confusion, 
consisting of direct and retrograde motions, and looped curves, so 
anomalous and irregular, as to be inconsistent with every thing 
like harmony, order, or intelligence — that Mercury and Venus 
are observed to have two conjunctions with the sun, but no oppo- 
sition ; which could not happen unless the orbits of these planets 
lay within the orbit of the earth — that Mars, Jupiter, and the 
other superior planets, have each their conjunctions with and op- 
positions to the sun, which could not be unless they were exterior 
to the orbit of the earth — that the greatest elongation of Mercury 
from the sun is only about 20 degrees, and that of Venus 47 ; 
but if the earth were the centre of their motions, as the Ptolemaic 
system supposes, they might sometimes be seen 180 degrees from 
the sun, which never happens — that some of the planets appear 
much larger and brighter at one time than at another, on account 
of their different distances from the earth ; but, on the other hy- 
pothesis, their brilliancy should be always the same — that Mer- 
cury and Venus, in their superior conjunctions with the sun, are 
sometimes hid behind his body, and in their inferior conjunctions 
sometimes appear to pass across the sun's disk, like round black 
spots which would be impossible according to the Ptolemaic sys- 
tem ; — and, in short, that the times in which the conjunctions, op- 
positions, stations, and retrogi'adations happen, are not such as 
they would be if the earth were at rest, but precisely such as 
Avould happen, if the earth move along with all the other planets, 
in the stations and periods assigned them in the system which has 
the sun for its centre. From such considerations, when properly 
explained, the annual motion of the earth, and its relative position 
in the system, may be clearly demonstrated, and the pupil made 
to perceive the beauty and harmony of the celestial motions, and 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EARTll's MOTIONS. 219 

the necessity of having the great source of ligkt and heat placed 
in the centre of the system. For as the sun is intended to cheer 
and irradiate surrounding worlds, it is from the centre alone that 
these agencies can be communicated, in a uniform and equable man- 
ner, to the planets in every part of their orbits. Were the earth 
the centre, and the sun and planets revolving around it, the planets 
when nearest the sun, would be scorched with excessive heat, and 
when farthest distant, frozen Avith excessive cold. 

There is another consideration by which the earth's annual re- 
volution and its position in the system are demonstrated; — and 
that is, that the planets Mercury and Venus, when viewed through 
good telescopes, are found to assume different phases, in different 
parts of their orbits ; sometimes appearing gibbous, sometimes like 
a half-moon, and at other times like a crescent, and a full en- 
lightened hemisphere, which could never happen if they revolved 
round the earth as their centre, and if the earth was not placed in 
an orbit exterior to that of Venus. I have sometimes illustrated 
this argument, with peculiar effect, by means of an equatorial 
telescope, and a common planetarium. By the equatorial tele- 
scope, with a power of 60 or 80 times, most of the stars of the 
first magnitude, and some of those of the second, may be seen 
even at noonday. Venus may be seen by this instrument, in 
the day-time, during the space of nineteen months, with the in- 
terruption of only about thirteen days at the time of her superior 
conjunction, and three days at the time of her inferior, so that 
the phase she exhibits may be seen almost every clear day. Hav- 
ing placed the Earth and Venus in their true positions on the 
planetarium, by means of an Ephemeris or the Nautical Alma- 
nac, I desire the pupil to place his eye in a line with the balls re- 
presenting these planets, and to mai'h the phase of Venus as seen 
from the earth — whether a crescent, a half-moon, or a gibbous 
phase. I then adjust the equatorial telescope for Venus, if she 
is within the range of our view, and show him the planet with the 
same phase in the heavens. This exhibition never fails to gratify 
every observer, and to produce conviction. But it can seldom be 
made, if we must wait till the planet be visible to the naked eye, 
and capable of being viewed by a common telescope ; for it is 
sometimes invisible to the naked eye, for nearly one half of its 
course from one conjunction to another. Besides, the phases of 
this planet are more distinctly marked in the day-time, when near 
the meridian, than either in the morning or evening, when at a 
low altitude, in which case it appears glaring and undefined, on 
account of the brilliancy of its light, and the undulating vapours 
pear the horizon, through which it is seen. As actual observa. 



220 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SEASONS. 

tions on the planets in the heavens make a deeper and more con- 
vincing impression on the mind of a young person, than mere 
diagrams or verbal explanations, I consider an equatorial tele- 
scope, in conjunction with a celestial globe and an orrery, as es- 
sentially necessary to every teacher of astronomy ; as, indepen- 
dently of its use, now hinted at, it is the best and most compre- 
hensive instrument for conveying an idea of the practical ope- 
rations of this science. It may be made to serve the general 
purposes of a transit instrument, a quadrant, an equal altitude 
instrument, a theodolite, an azimuth instrument, a level, and an 
accurate universal sundial. It serves for taking the right ascen- 
sions and declinations of the heavenly bodies, and for conveying 
a clear idea of these operations. It may be made to point to any 
phenomena in the heavens whose declination and right ascension 
are known ; and, in this way, the planets Mercury, Flerschel, 
Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, a small comet, or any other body 
not easily distinguished by the naked eye, may be readily point- 
ed out.* 

The cause of the variety of seasons may next be explained and 
illustrated. It is difficult, if not impossible, by mere diagrams 
and verbal explanations, to convey a clear idea on this subject ; 
and therefore, some appropriate machinery must be resorted to, 
in order to assist the mind in forming its conceptions on this point. 
The difficulty is, to conceive how the sun can enlighten the North 
Pole without intermission, during one half of the year, and the 
South Pole during the other, while the poles of the earth never 
shift their position, but are directed invariably to the same points 
of the heavens. This is frequently attempted to be illustrated by 
means of a brass hoop with a candle placed in its centre, and a 
small terrestrial globe carried round it, having its axis inclined to 
the brass circle, which is intended to represent the orbit of the 
earth. But this exhibition requires some dexterity to conduct it 
aright, and after all is not quite satisfactory. An orrery, having 
all the requisite movements by wheel-work, and where the Earth 
moves with its axis parallel to itself and inclined to the plane of 
the ecliptic, is the best instrument for illustrating all the variety 
of the seasons. When such a machine cannot be procured for 
this purpose, its place may be supplied by a neat little instrument, 
called a Tellurium^ which has been manufactured for many years 



* A small Equatorial, having the Horizontal, Declination, and Equatorial 
circles about six inches diameter, surmounted with a twenty-inch achromatic 
telescope, with magnifying powers of from 30 to 80 times, may be procured 
for about fifteen or sixteen guineas, which will serve every general purpose 
in teaching astronomy. 



PHENOMENA or THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 221 

past by Messrs. Jones, Holburn, London, and may be purchased 
for about thirty shillings. This instrument consists of a brass 
ball representing the sun — which may be occasionally screwed 
oft^, and a lamp substituted in its place — an ivory ball representing 
the earth, having the circles of the sphere drawn upon it, a small 
ball representing the moon, and about eight wheels, pinions, and 
circles. It exhibits the annual motion of the earth, and the moon 
revolving around it, with its different phases, the cause of eclipses, 
the retrograde motion of the moon's nodes, and the inclination of 
its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. The earth is moveable on 
an axis inclined 23^ degrees to the ecliptic, and its axis preserves 
its parallelism during its course round the sun. The seasons are 
exhibited on this instrument as follows: — the index, which points 
out the sun's place and the day of the month, is placed at the 21st 
March, the time of the vernal equinox, and the north and south 
poles of the earth are placed exactly under the terminator, or 
boundary between light and darkness. When the machinery is 
moved by the hand till the index points to the 21st June, the time 
of the summer solstice, then the North Polar regions appear 
within the boundary of light, and the South Polar within the 
boundary of darkness. Turning the machine till the index points 
to September 23d, both poles again appear on the boundary of 
lio'ht and darkness. Moving it on to December 21st, the Arctic 
circle appears in darkness, and the Antarctic in the light. During 
these motions, the earth's axis keeps parallel to itself, pointing 
uniformly in the same direction. This exhibition is quite satisfac- 
tory and convincing ; the only objection to the instrument is, that 
it is small, — about eight or nine inches diameter — and, conse- 
quently, will admit only four or five individuals at a lime to 
inspect its movements with distinctness. 

A full and specific description should next be given of all the 
facts connected with the solar system — the distances and magni- 
tudes of the sun and planets — their annual and diurnal revolu- 
tions — the solar spots — the belts and satellites of Jupiter — the 
rings of Saturn — the phases of Venus — the spots of Mars, and 
the mountains and ca-vities of the Moon. After which some details 
might be given of the facts which have been ascertained respect- 
ing comets, variable stars, double and treble stars, new stars, 
stars once visible which have disappeared, and the numerous 
nebuliB which are dispersed through different regions of the hea- 
vens. The pupils should now be gratified with a view of some 
of these objects through good telescopes. A telescope, magnifying 
about 30 times, will show the satellites of Jupiter, the crescent of 
Venus, the solar spots, and the rugged appearance of the Moon. 

19* 



222 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOON AND PLANETS. 

With a magnifying power of 60 or 70, the ring of Saturn, the 
belts of Jupiter, the shadows of the Umar mountains and cavities, 
and all the phases of Venus, may be distinguished. But the views 
of these objects obtained by such magnifying powers are unsatis- 
factory. No telescope should be selected for this purpose less 
than a 3 2- feet Achromatic, with powers varying from 40 to 180 
or 200 times.* A power of 150 is a very' good medium for in- 
specting all the more interesting phenomena of the heavens. With 
this power, distinct and satisfactory views may be obtained of the 
solar spots, the phases of Mercury, Venus, and Mars, the belts, 
and sometimes the spots of Jupiter, and the shadows of his satel- 
lites, the ring and some of the moons and belts of Saturn, the 
spots of Mars, the minute hills and cavities of the moon, several 
of the double stars, and many of the most remarkable nehnla;. 
To perceive distinctly the division of Saturn's ring, requires a 
posvcr of at least 200 times. In exhibiting such objects to the 
young, especially when the lower powers are used, some attention 
is requisite to adjust the instrument to distinct vision, as their 
eyes are generally more convex than the eyes of persons ad- 
vanced in life, and those who are short-sighted will require an 
adjustment different from that of others. Unless this circumstance 
be attended to, their views of celestial phenomena will frequently 
be unsatisfactory and obscure. In exhibiting the surface of the 
moon, the period of half-moon, or a day or two before or after it, 
should generally be selected; as it is only at such periods that the 
shadows of the mountains and vales, and the circular ridges, can 
be most distinctly perceived. At the time of full moon, its hemi- 
sphere presents only a variegated appearance of darker and 
brighter streaks, and no shadows are discernible ; so that, from 
the telescopic appearance of the full moon, we could scarcely de- 
termine whether or not its surface were diversified with mountains 
and vales. 

Previous to exhibiting the moon through a telescope, it may be 
proper to give the observers an idea of some partivlalar objects 
they will see, on which their attention should be fixed, and from 
which they should deduce certain conclusions. For, a view of 
the moon, for the first time, through a powerful telescope, is apt 
to overpower the eye, and to produce a confused and indistinct 
perception. As one of the peculiarities of the lunar surface con- 
sists in the numerous cavities, and plains surrounded with circu- 

* An Achromatic telescope of this description, with an object-glass, 45 
inches focal distance, and about three inches diameter, with 4 or 5 magnify- 
ing powers, with a brass tube mounted on a brass tripod, may be purchased 
in London, for 25 guineas. 



REPRESENTATIONS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 223 

lar ridges of mountains, and insulated mountains rising from a 
level surface — an idea of the shadows and circumstances by 
which these objects are indicated should be previously communi- 
cated. This may be done by means of a saucer, the top of a 
small circular box, or any other object which may represent a 
plain surrounded by a circular ridge. In the middle of any of 
these objects may be placed a small peg to represent a mountain. 
Then placing a candle at the distance of a foot or two, so as to 
shine obliquely upon the objects, the inside of the circular dish 
farthest from the candle will be seen enlightened, while a con- 
siderable portion of the bottom will be covered by the shadow 
thrown upon it by the side next the candle, and the shadow of 
the peg will be seen verging towards the enlightened side. This 
previous exhibition will give them an idea of the form of some of 
the mountains and vales on the lunar surface, and enable them 
to appreciate the nature of those striking inequalities which ap- 
pear near the boundary between the dark and enlightened parts 
of the moon. Other objects which diversify the moon's surface 
may be represented and illustrated in a similar manner, and suf- 
ficient time should be allowed to every observer for taking a 
minute inspection of all the varieties on the lunar disk. The 
solar spots may be viewed with ease, by interposing a coloured 
glass between the eye and the image of the sun ; but, in looking 
through the telescope in the ordinary way, they can be perceived 
by only one individual at a time. In order to exhibit them to a 
company of 30 or 40 persons at once, the image of the sun may 
be thrown on a white wall or screen. I have generally exhibited 
them in the following manner. To a 3| feet Achromatic tele- 
scope, I apply a diagonal eye-piece, which has a plain metallic 
speculum placed at half a right angle to the axis of the telescope. 
By this eye-piece, after the room has been darkened as much as 
possible, the image of the sun and his spots is thrown upon the 
roof of the apartment, which forms a beautiful circle of light, and 
exhibits all 'he spots which then happen to diversify his surface. 
His apparent diurnal motion is also represented, along with the 
motions of any thin fleeces of clouds which may happen to cross 
his disk. In this way, too, the proportional magnitudes of the 
spots may be measured, and compared with the diameter of the 
sun, and, of course, their real magnitudes ascertained. 

In illustrating the phenomena of the planetary system by means 
of orreries, planetariums, and lunariums, great care should be 
taken to guard the young against the false and imperfect concep- 
tions of the magnitudes and distances of the planets, which such 
instruments have a tendency to convey. No orrery, of a portable 



224 REPRESENTATIONS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

size, can represent, at the same time, both the proportional dis- 
tances and relative magnitudes of the different planets. Even 
those large machines designated Eidouraniums and Transparent 
Orreries afford no correct views of these particulars ; and some 
of them convey very erroneous and distorted conceptions of the 
relations of the solar system, where it is the chief design to dazzle 
the eye with a splendid show. In some of these exhibitions 1 have 
seen the stars represented as if they had been scattered through 
different parts of the planetary system. — An orrery representing 
the proportional distances and magnitudes of the sun and planets 
would require to be more than three miles in diameter ; and, even 
on this scale, Jupiter would be less than 3 inches diameter, the 
Earth a quarter of an inch, or about the size of a small pea, and 
Mercury only about the dimensions of the head of a small pin, 
while the sun would require to be represented by a ball 30 inches 
in diameter — in which case all the planets would be invisible from 
the centre of the system. To correct, in some measure, the er- 
roneous ideas which a common orrery is apt to convey, the mag- 
nitudes and distances should be separately represented. Suppose 
a celestial globe, 18 inches in diameter, to represent the Sun, 
Jupiter will be represented by a ball about 1| inch diameter, Sa- 
turn by one of 1| inch, Herschel by one of about f inch, the 
Earth by a ball of i inch, or somewhat less than a small pea, 
Venus by a ball of nearly the same size. Mars by a globule of 
about y^2 inch. Mercury by a globule of y^j, and the Moon by a 
still smaller globule of J^ inch in diameter. These three last 
might be represented by three different sizes of pin-heads. When 
balls of these sizes are placed adjacent to an 18-inch globe, and 
compared with it, an impressive idea is conveyed of the astonish- 
insc magnitude of the sun, which is 500 times (];reater than all the 
planets, satellites, and comets, taken together. The proportional 
distances may be represented as follows. At one end of a table 
9 feet in length, fix a ball upon a pillar to represent the sun ; at 
2 inches from the sun's ball, place another to represent Mercury ; 
at 3| inches, Venus ; at 5 inches, the Earth ; at 7| inches. Mars; 
at 25 inches, Jupiter ; at 47^ inches, or about 4 feet, Saturn ; 
and, at 95 inches, or about 8 feet from the sun's ball, place one 
to represent Herschel. This will convey a pretty correct idea of 
the proportional distances from the sun of the principal primary 
planets. The distances of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, might 
likewise be represented, if judged expedient ; but as their orbits 
are more eccentric than those of the other planets, and some of 
them cross each other, they cannot be accurately represented. 
When orreries or telescopes cannot be procured for exhibiting the 



PARALLAXES EXPLAINED. 



225 



celestial motions and phenomena to which I have alluded, some 
of these objects, such as the rings of Saturn, the belts and moons 
of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the Moon, and some of the con- 
stellations, may be represented in a dark room by means of the 
■phantasmagoria. But the representations made by this instru- 
ment form but a rude and paltry substitute for the exhibitions pre- 
sented by the orrery and the telescope, and need never be resort- 
ed to, except for amusement, where these instruments can be ob- 
tained. 

It might next be expedient to communicate to the pupil an idea 
of the nature of a parallax, to prepare him for understandino- 
the mode by which the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly 
bodies are ascertained. This might be done by fixing a pole or 
staff, with a pointed top, in a garden or large area, opposite a 
wall or hedge, F G, Fig. 1, and, desiring one of the pupils to take 
his station at A, and another at B, and to direct their eyes to the 
points on the wall which appear in a line with the top of the pole, 
when the one stationed at A will perceive it to coincide with the 

Fig. 1. 




point C, and the other stationed at B will perceive it at D. They 
may be told that C D is the parallax, or the difference of the 
apparent place of the pole P, when viewed from the positions A 
and B, which is measured by the angle C P D ; and that, if the 
distance between A and B were measured, and the number of 
degrees or minutes in the angle C P D or A P B ascertained, the 
distance between the pole and any of the stations can be easily 
determined. This may be easily applied to the case of the hea- 
venly bodies by means of such a diagram as Fig. 2, where H I K 
represents the Earth, M the Moon,^P a planet^ and S T a quad- 
rant of the starry heavens. It is evident, that, if the moon be 
viewed from the surface of the earth at H, she will appear in the 



226 



PARALLAXES EXPLAINED. 



heavens at the point a ; but if she be viewed from the centre C, 
she will be seen at the point 6, the angle a M 6 being the angle 
of parallax. This angle being found, which is the same as the 




angle H M C, and the base line H C, or the earth's semidiameter 
being known, which is nearly 4000 miles — the length of the line 
H M, or the distance of the moon, can be easily determined. It 
may be proper also to state that the farther any heavenly body 
is distant from the earth, the less is its parallax. Hence the paral- 
laxes of the sun and planets are all much less than that of the 
moon, which is the nearest celestial body to the earth. Thus, the 
parallax c d o^ the planet P is less than that of the Moon, M, 
and the same principle likewise holds true with respect to all ter- 
restrial objects. This subject may soon be rendered quite plain 
to the pupil, by familiar illustrations, in connection with a few in- 
structions on the nature and properties of triangles, and the first 
principles of trigonometry. 

I have been somewhat particular in some of the hints thrown 
out above, because it is of some importance that the young should 
have clear and impressive conceptions of every object presented 
to their view, in every step of their progress on this subject, and 



MORAL REFLECTIONS. 227 

iiol depend mc/ely on the assertions or the positions announced 
by their teachers ; and because such a train of observations and 
experimental iUustrations has seldom been attended to, in attempt- 
ing to convey to the juvenile mind a popular view of the leading 
facts of astronomy. After the pupil has acquired a knowledge 
of the subjects to which I have adverted, an intelligent teacher 
will find little difficulty in gradually unfolding to him the doc- 
trines and facts in relation to solar and lunar eclipses — the tides — 
the form of the planetary orbits — the nature of refraction — the 
divisions of time — the mensuration of the earth — centrifugal and 
centripetal forces — the circles of the celestial sphere — and various 
other particulars connected with astronomical science. 

In illustrating the principles and exhibiting the objects of astro- 
nomy, the pious and intelligent teacher will have frequent oppor- 
tunities of impressing upon the minds of his pupils the most 
sublime ideas of the Perfections of the Creator, and of the Extent 
and Grandeur of his Empire, and of inspiring them with Love, 
Admiration, and Reverence ; and such opportunities ought never 
to be neglected. When descanting on the number and mag- 
nificence of the celestial worlds, he may very appropriately take 
occasion to impress them with the idea of the littleness of this 
earth, and its comparative insignificance, when placed in compe- 
tition with the numerous and more resplendent worlds and sys- 
tems which compose the universe; and, consequently, with the 
folly and madness of ambition, and of all those warlike schemes 
and ferocious contentions, of which our world has been the mel- 
ancholy theatre. He may occasionally expatiate a little or the 
folly of pride, and its inconsistency with the character and cir- 
cumstances of man, when we consider his comparative igno- 
rance, and the low station which he holds in the scale of creation 
—and the reasonableness of cultivating a spirit of hvmility in 
the presence of that Almighty Being whose " glory is above the 
heavens," and " whose kingdom ruleth over all," when we con- 
sider, that, when compared with the myriads of more exalted 
intelligences that people the universe, we are only like a few atoms 
in the immensity of space. He may direct their attention to the 
infinitely diversified scenes of grandeur and felicity which the uni- 
verse must contain, since its range is so extensive and its objects 
so magnificent ; and to the evidence which these facts afford, that 
the Creator has it in his power to gratify his rational offspring 
with new objects, and new sources of enjoyment, during every 
period of infinite duration. — In short, he may excite them, from 
such considerations, to aspire after that more glorious state of ex- 
istence where the works of Omnipotence will be more fully un- 



228 EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOrHY. 

folded, and to cultivate those holy principles and dispositions 
which will qualify them for mingling in the society and engaging 
in the employments of the heavenly world. Such instructions, 
when amalgamated with Christian views and motives, could not 
fail of producing a beneficial impression on the susceptible hearts 
of the young, which might, in some measure, influence their con- 
duct and train of thought through all the remaining periods of 
their lives.* 

Section IX. — Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry. 

The object of Natural and Experimental Philosophy is to 
investigate the phenomena of the material world, in order to dis- 
cover their causes, and the laws by which the Almighty directs 
the movements of the universe ; and to apply the observations 
and discoveries we make to useful purposes in human life, and 
to expand our views of the perfections and operations of the Cre- 



* The most celebrated writers on Astronomy are Long, Ferguson, La 
Caille, Martin, O. Gregory, Vince, Herschel, Robison, La Lande, La Place, 
Biot, and various others. Popular works on this subject, which may be put 
into the hands of young persons, are such as the following : — Ferguson's 
" Gentleman and Lady's Astronomy" — Martin's " Gentleman and Lady's 
Philosophy," Vol. 1. — Bonnycastle's "Introduction to Astronomy" — Mrs. 
Brian's " Astronomy" — " The Wonders of the Heavens" — Gregory's 
"Astronomical Lessons," &c. But none of these works are adapted to the 
piirpose of teaching. The best treatise of this kind I have seen, calculated 
to be a text-book for an intelligent teacher, is a work entitled " The Geogra- 
phy of the Heavens," by Elijah H. Buvvit, A. M., lately published at 
Hartford, State of Comiecticiit. This volume comprises 343 closely print- 
ed pages, large 18mo., and several appropriate wood-cuts. It contains a 
very full and lucid description of all the particulars respecting the different 
constellations and principal stars, the general principles of astronomy, the 
facts connected with the solar system, problems, asti'onomical tables, and al- 
most every thing that can be deemed interesting to the general student: 
Every page contains Questions, as exercises for the judgment of the pupil. 
It is accompanied by a large and beautiful Atlas, 16 inches by 14, contain- 
ing 7 Planispheres, or Maps of the Heavens: 1. The visible heavens in 
October, November, and December. 2. Do. in January, February, and 
March. 3. Do. in April, May, and June. 4. Do. in July, August, and 
September. 5. The visible heavens in the North Polar Regions for each 
month of the year. 6. Do. in the South Polar Regions. 7. Planisphere 
of the whole heavens on Mercator's projection. " The first four maps are 
so constructed, that the pupil in using them must suppose himself to face 
the south, and to hold them directly over head, in such a manner that the 
top of the map should be towards the north, and the bottom towards the 
south." In the construction of these maps, and in the composition of the 
work, the latest discoveries have been carefully inserted. This work, since 
its first publication in 1833, has had an extensive sale in the United States, 
and been introduced into many respectable seminaries. 



MECHANICS. 229 

ator. This department of study has generally been divided into 
the following subordinate branches, Mechanics^ Hydrostatics., 
Hyrh^aulics^ Pneumatics^ Meteorology, Acoustics, Optics, Elec- 
tricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism. This is a subject, the popu- 
lar and experimental parts of which may be rendered highly 
entertaining and instructive to the minds of the young. But, 
however important the subject in all its branches may be to the 
regular scientific student, it would be inexpedient to attempt con- 
veying more than a general view of the more popular parts of it 
to young persons from the age of ten to the age of fourteen, 
although many of the experiments connected with it may, with 
propriety, be exhibited even to children of an earlier age, in order 
to excite a taste for the study of natural science. Experimental 
illustrations of the subjects of Natural Philosophy sometimes 
require an extensive apparatus, which cannot be procured but at 
a considerable expense ; but there are many interesting experi- 
ments, illustrative of scientific principles and facts, which can be 
performed with very simple apparatus, and at little expense ; and 
all that I propose, under this article, is to suggest a few of those 
experiments which almost every teacher may have it in his power 
to perform. 

In the department of Mechanics, — illustrations might be given 
of the mechanical potcers, which are generally arranged under 
the heads of the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axis, the inclined 
plane, the wedge, and the screjc. A simple apparatus for illus- 
trating these powers could easily be constructed by an ino-enious 
mechanic, at a trifling expense, and might be rendered conducive 
both to the entertainment and instruction of the young. In par- 
ticular, the nature and power of the lever, and the principle on 
which it acts, should be minutely explained, by experimental 
illustrations, and by showing its effects in the common operations 
of life. A long bar of iron or hard wood might be erected on a 
steady fulcrum, and placed in the area adjacent to the school, 
which might serve both for amusement and for illustrating the 
power of the lever. This bar might be divided into feet or^'half 
feet, or any convenient number of equal parts, and so constructed 
that any of those parts might be placed upon the fulcrum. By 
such a lever the different powers to be applied at different dis- 
tances from the fulcrum, when a weight is to be raised, mioht be 
familiarly illustrated. A seat or swing might be fixed at one end 
of the beam, on which a boy might sit, while some of his com- 
panions, towards the other end, applied different powers or weights 
at different distances from the fulcrum, as a counterpoise ; which 
would suggest various calculations respecting the powers requisite 

20 



230 HYDROSTATICS. 

to be applied in any given case, according to the distance from 
the point of support. It will tend to excite their interest in this 
subject, when they are informed that scissors, pincers, snuffers, 
oars, the balance, the see-saw, doors turning on hinges, the rud- 
ders of ships, cutting knives fixed at one end, and the bones of 
the arm, are all so many different kinds of levers ; and that the 
operations of quarrying stones, raising great weights, poking the 
fire, rowing a boat, digging the ground, and such like, are all 
performed on the principle of this mechanical power. Similar 
contrivances might be adopted for illustrating the wheel and axle 
and other powers. A knowledge of the mechanical powers may 
be useful to every individual, whatever may be his trade or pro- 
fession in future life, but particularly to those who may afterwards 
engage in the arts of carpentry, architecture, mining, engineering, 
and other operations where a knowledge of the mechanical powers 
is essentially requisite ; and the impressions made upon their 
minds in early life by familiar illustrations of these powers, would 
tend to facilitate their study of such objects when they became 
the more particular objects of their attention. 

The fundamental principles of Hydrostatics and Hydraulics 
might be familiarly illustrated by a variety of simple experiments, 
some of which might be rendered extremely amusing. That 
fluids press in all directions — that their pressure is in proportion 
to their perpendicular height — that a small quantity of a fluid 
may be made to counterpoise any quantity, however great — that 
a fluid specifically lighter than another will float upon its sur- 
face — that the surface of all fluids which communicate with each 
other will be on the same level — that the velocity with which 
water spouts from holes in the side of a vessel, is in proportion 
to the square root of the distance of the holes below the surface 
of the water: — These, and similar positions, along with the 
principles on which syphons, jets, and artificial fountains act, 
can be illustrated with an apparatus which every intelligent teacher, 
if he has the least share of mechanical ingenuity, can easily con- 
struct for himself, with the assistance of glass vessels, which are 
to be found in almost every family. To show that water will find 
its level, and rise to the same height in tubes which have a com- 
munication, an instrument similar to the following. Fig. 1. may 
be constructed : — A B and E D are two tubes which have a com- 
munication with each other by means of the tube B D ; if water 
is poured into the tube A B, it will run through the tube B D, and 
stand at the same elevation in the tube E D. To save expense, 
the tube B D may be made of wood, and plugged up at b5th ends; 
and the glass tubes A B, E D, fixed into it at each end with ce- 



HYDROSTATICS. 
Fig.1. 



231 



ji 



i:d 



ment ; and if B D be made flat on its under part, it will stand on 
a table without requiring any support. An instrument to show 
that a small portion of water will counterbalance a large quantity, 
may be made as follows : — A B, Fig. 2. is a vessel which may 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 




be either square or round, and which may be made either of wood 
or tin-plate ; C D is a glass tube of a narrow bore, cemented into 
the short tube E, which communicates with the large vessel ; if 
water be poured into either of these, it will stand at the same 
height in both, which proves, that the small quantity of water in 
the tube C D, balances the large quantity in the vessel A B, and 
illustrates what has been termed the hydrostatical paradox. Jets 
and fountains may be represented and illustrated by such an in- 
strument as Fig. 3. where A B is the reservoir, and C D E a tube 
connected with it, bent at right angles at D ; when these are fill- 



232 



HYDROSTATICS. 



ed with water — the finger having previously been pressed upon 
the opening F — as soon as the finger is removed, the water rises 
in a jet, nearly to the height of the fountain, A B. A jet may 
likewise be produced by the instrument represented, Fig. 1. by 
plugging up the tube E D, and opening a hole at C, when a jet 
will arise after the tubes are filled with water. To show the dif- 
ferent quantities and velocities of water spouting at different dis- 
tances from the surface of a reservoir, such a vessel as that re- 
presented, Fig. 4. may be used. The water will issue from the 

Fig. 4. 




orifice at C with greater velocity, and consequently in greater 
quantity than at B or A ; if the orifice C be four times as deep be- 
low the surface as the orifice A, it will discharge twice as much 
water in a given time as A, because 2 is the square root of 4 ; if 
the orifice B be in the centre of the column of water, it will pro- 
ject the water to the greatest horizontal distance. The vessel 
here represented may be made either of wood or of tin-plate, and 
if a bent tube be inserted at D, and the holes ABC shut up, it 
may serve to exhibit a jet d'eaii. The cup of Tantalus^ the 
fountain at command, the hydraulic dancers and divers, and 
other entertaining devices might also be exhibited, and accom- 
panied with explanations of the principles on which they act. By 
such means, several of the leading principles of hydrostatics 
might be easily impressed upon the youthful mind, and would 
doubtless be found of practical utility in future life, provided the 
teacher is careful to show, by familiar examples, how they explain 
many of the phenomena of nature and operations of art. 

The science of Pneumatics affords scope for many curious 
discussions and experiments respecting the air and atmospherical Ml 
phenomena, which may be rendered interesting to the young. In *' 
illustrating the pressure, elasticity, and other properties of the 
atmosphere, the assistance of the air-pump, with its usual appa- 



PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 233 

ratus, is highly desirable ; as, without it, some of the most inter- 
esting experiments on this subject cannot be performed. But 
where this instrument, on account of its expense, cannot be pro- 
cured, various useful and entertaining experiments may be ex- 
hibited by means of a simple apparatus which almost every one 
can procure. For example^he pressure of the atmosphere may 
be proved to the conviction of every one by such simple experi- 
ments as the following : — The common experiment of filling a 
wine-glass with water, covering its mouth with a piece of paper, 
and then inverting it, is quite decisive of the atmospheric pres- 
sure ; for the paper underneath, instead of being convex by the 
pressure of the water within, is concave, by the pressure of the 
atmosphere from without ; and no other cause can be assigned 
why the water is supported in the glass. Another simple experi- 
ment, where no paper is employed, proves the same fact : Take 
a glass tube, two or three feet long, with a narrow bore ; put one 
end of it into a vessel of water, put your mouth to the other end, 
and make a deep inspiration till the air is drawn out of the tube, 
when the water will rush to the top of the tube ; then place your 
thumb on the top to prevent the access of air from above, and 
when the other end of the tube is taken out of the water, the 
column of water will be suspended in the tube by the atmospheric 
pressure, although the lower end of it is open. When the air 
is sucked out of the tube, a vacuum is produced, and the external 
air, pressing upon the surface of the water in the vessel, forces 
it to the top of the tube ; the thumb being applied prevents the air 
pressing the water down, and the atmospheric pressure on the 
bottom prevents the water from running out. The same fact is 
proved by the following experiment : Let a piece of burning paper 
be put into a wine-glass, so as to rarify or exhaust the air, and 
while it is still burning, press the palm of the hand against the mouth 
of the glass, when it will adhere with a considerable degree of 
force, by the pressure of the atmosphere on the bottom and sides 
of the glass. This experiment may be varied as follows : Pour 
a certain quantity of water into a saucer ; invert a wine-glass over 
a piece of burning paper or burning brandy, and, after holdipg it 
a short time in the flame, place it in the saucer, when the water 
will rush up into the glass in consequence of the atmospheric 
pressure, as it did in the glass tube when it was exhausted of its 
air by suction. These and similar experiments, which every one 
may perform, are as decisive proofs of the atmospheric pressure 
as those which are performed by means of the air-pump. Such 
experiments, when conducted by intelligent teachers, may easily 
be applied to the explanation of the causes of certain natural 3^4 

20 * 



234 TNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 

artificial processes, such as the firm adherence of two polished 
surfaces — the action of a boy's sucker in lifting large stones — the 
operation of cvpping — the process of a child's sucking its mother's 
breast — the effects produced by cements — the rise of water in 
pumps — the firm adhesion of snails and shell-fish to rocks and 
stones — the action of syphons — what is termed suction, as when 
we take a draught of water from a running stream — the fact, that 
a cask will not run, in certain cases, unless an opening is made 
in its top — and many similar processes, some of which will be 
found of considerable practical utility. 

The elasticity of the air may be proved by such experiments 
as these : — Take a bladder, and fill it with air by blowing into it, 
and then apply a force to the sides of it, so as to compress it into 
a smaller space ; when the force is removed, it immediately ex- 
pands and fills the same space as before. This experiment proves, 
not only the elasticity of air, but that, though invisible, it is as 
much a material substance as wood or iron ; for no force can 
bring the sides together, without breaking the bladder, although 
the parts of an empty bladder may be squeezed into any shape. 
The same thing is proved by the following experiment : Open a 
pair of common bellows, and then stop the nozle, so that no air 
can rush out — and no force whatever can bring the parts together, 
without bursting the leather, or unstopping the nozle. That heat 
increases the elasticity of air, may be shown, by placing before a 
strong fire a bladder with a small quantity of air, when the small 
portion of air will expand, till the bladder appear quite full and 
ready to burst. These experiments may be applied to the expla- 
nation of such phenomena as the following ; — Why the compress- 
ed air between the liquid and the cork, in a bottle of beer or ale, 
bursts forth in the form of froth when the cork is drawn — why 
fishes, in consequence of their air-bladders^ are enabled to rise 
and sink in the water — and why the carcase of a man that has 
been drowned, in a few days rises and floats on the surface for a 
short time, and then sinks to rise no more. The compressibility 
of air may be shown, by taking a glass tube which is open only 
at one end, and of course full of air, and plunging the open end 
into a vessel of water, when the water will be seen to have risen 
to a small height, near the bottom of the tube ; which proves that 
the air which filled the whole length of the tube is compressed by 
the water, into a smaller space. In a similar way the principle 
of the diving-bell may be illustrated. Let A B, Fig. 1, repre- 
sent a large tumbler or drinking-glass, which may be nearly filled 
with water. Place a piece of cork on the surface of the water, 
and over the cork an ale-glass, C D, with its mouth downwards ; 



PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



235 



then push the glass perpendicularly down towards the bottom of 
the tumbler, and the cork will appear swimming a little above the 
bottom ; plainly indicating that there is no water above it in the 
ale-glass, which is prevented from entering by the resistance of 




the air within. The water in the tumbler may represent the water 
of a river or of the sea ; the ale-glass may represent the diving- 
bell, in which a person may sit with safety in the depths of the 
sea without touching the water, provided fresh air be supplied. A 
small quantity of water will be found to have entered the ale- 
glass, and the deeper it is plunged in any vessel the higher will 
the water rise within it. At the depth of 33 feet, where the 
pressure of the atmosphere is doubled, a diving-bell will be half 
filled with water — at the depth of 66 feet, it will be two-thirds 
filled — at the depth of 99 feet, it will be three-fourths filled, and 
so on in proportion to the depth ; which shows the propriety of 
having this vessel in the form of a feeZZ, that the perpendicular 
height of the water may be as little as possible. The following 
simple experiment illustrates the pressure of the atmosphere in a 
mode somewhat different from those already stated. Procure a 
tin vessel about six or seven inches long, and three in diameter, 
having its mouth about a quarter of an inch wide, as E F, Fig. 2. 
In its bottom make a number of small holes, about the diameter 
of a common sewing-needle. Plunge this vessel in water, and 
when full cork it up, so that no air can enter at the top. So 
long as it remains corked, no water will run out — the pressure 
of the atmosphere at the bottom preventing it ; but as soon as it 
is uncorked, the water will issue from the small holes in the bot- 



236 



PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



torn, by the pressure of the air from above. The same experi- 
ment may be made by means of a tube, seven or eight inches 
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 





long, and about three-fourths of an inch diameter, having two or 
three small holes in its bottom ; and another tube, G H, Fig. 3, 
of the same dimensions, having a small hole in each side, I K, 
will illustrate the lateral pressure of the atmosphere — the water 
being retained when it is corked, and running out when the cork 
is removed. It will likewise illustrate the lateral pressure of water 
and other liquids. 

Several amusing experiments may also be performed by means 
of syphons, when concealed in drinking-cups and other vessels ; 
and the utility of the principle on which they act may be illus- 
trated in certain practical operations. For example, their use 
may be shown in conveying water over a rising ground. In 
Fig. 4, let M represent a pond or pool of water, in a quarry or 

Fig. 4.j>f 




Other situation, which is wished to be drained, and where there is 
no declivity or lower ground adjacent to which the water can be 
conveyed — it may be carried over the rising ground M N, by means 
of the syphon M N L ; provided the perpendicular elevation N P, 



PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



237 



above the level of the pool M, does not exceed thirty-two feet, for 
to that height only will the water rise in the syphon by the 
pressure of the atmosphere ; and provided that the end of the 
syphon at L descends a little way beyond the level of the pool at 
M, — in which case, when the syphon is filled, the water will rush 
out at L, so long as any remains in the pond. In the same way 
may be shown how a cask of liquor may be decanted by a syphon 
placed in a hole made in its upper side. The use of the syphon 
might likewise be shown when placed in a reverse position, as in 
Fig. 5, when it may be applied to the purpose of conveying water 

Tig. 5. 




from a fountain at R, along a hollow or valley to a house, S, at 
the same height on the other side of the valley ; and however 
deep or broad the valley may be, the water may in this manner 
be conveyed, provided the syphon is sufficiently strong near its 
lower parts to sustain the perpendicular pressure of the water. 

The following simple and interesting experiment might be ex- 
hibited to show the effects of the expansion of air. Procure a 
common Florence flask, F G, Fig. 6, and pour into it a large 
wine-glassfull of water; then take a tube, I H, bent at the top, 
H, like a small syphon, and fasten it air-tight into the mouth of 
the flask, I, so that its bottom may be immersed in the water at 
K, but not touching the bottom of the flask. Then immerse the 
flask into a vessel of very hot water, when, in consequence of 
the expansion of the air in the flask, the water at K will be forced 
up into the tube I H, where it is received into a wine-glass at H. 
Holding the wine-glass, into which the water is now received, at 
the end of the tube, as represented in the figure, take the flask 
out of the hot water, and plunge it into another vessel full of cold 



238 



PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



water, and the water in the wine-glass will be thrown back into 
the bottom of the flask, by the pressure of the atmosphere on its 




surface at H. The flask may then be again Immersed in the hot 
water, when the water at its bottom will be thrown up into the 
wine-glass as before, and the operations may be repeated as often 
as judged expedient. This experiment, when dexterously per- 
formed, seldom fails to produce a pleasing effect upon the specta- 
tors, especially when the water is tinged with a red colour, by 
means of the sulphuric or any other acid dropped into an infusion 
of red cabbage.* 



* In arranging and performing such simple experiments as those above 
stated, it is expedient that the teacher or operator should know how to cut 
phials and glass tubes, and to form syphons. The neck of a common phial 
may be cut off, so as to form a tube, by slightly indenting a portion of the 
circumference with the sharp edge of a common file, and then, with the 
point of a hot iron, beginning at the indention, go round the circumference 
of the phial, and the head will at once be separated from the body. Other- 
wise, tie a thread which has been steeped in turpentine or spirits of wine, 
firmly round the mouth of the phial, then set fire to it, and the operation is 
performed. In the same manner, long glass tubes may be cut into any 
lengths. If the tubes be of a small diameter, it is only requisite to indent 
them with a file at the point where they are intended to be cut, and then, 
holding one end of the tube in the left hand, give a blow with the right on 
the other end, and the tube will snap asunder. — To bend a glass tube into 
the form of a syphon : Put the tube through the bars of a common grate, 
when the fire is burning clear ; let the part of the tube which is to be bent 
be in the centre or hottest part of the fire ; take hold of the tube at botli 



OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



239 



The science of Optics affords scope for many delightful and 
interesting experiments ; but some of its instruments are very 
expensive. I shall therefore state only a few simple exhibitions 
and experiments which can be made at a trifling expense. Be- 
fore the teacher can illustrate any of the principles of this science 
by experiment, it will be requisite that he provide himself with a 
few convex lenses, some of short and others of pretty long focal 
distances. For example, double or plano-convex glasses, 5 inch, 
1 inch, 3 and 4 inches, focal distance, which may be made to 
illustrate the construction of a compound microscope, as I have 
elsewhere shown m my work, " On the Improvement of Society." 
Also lenses, from 3 to 6 or 8 feet focus, to illustrate the construc- 
tion of a telescope, and the nature of a camera obscura; and two 
or three concave mirrors for illustrating some of the phenomena 
o£ ref,ection. The principle on which a compound microscope, a 
solar microscope, and a magic lantern or phantasmagoria, are 
constructed, may be shown by one easy experiment. Let A, 
Fig. 1, represent a convex glass, suppose six inches focal dis- 
tance, and B the flame of a candle. Hold the glass, A, at a little 
more than six inches from the candle, and on an opposite wall will 



Fig. 1. 




be formed a large magnified image of the candle, C E D. This 
image will be inverted, and larger than the flame of the candle in 
proportion as the distance A E, from the glass to the wall, ex- 
ends, and when it begins to melt near the middle, gently bend it with both 
hands, in the form which is wanted, and then remove it from the fire. A 
little experience will render such operations quite easy and efficient for the 
purpose intended. If a small bend only at one end of the tube is required, 
that end may be put into the fire till it begin to melt, then take hold of it 
gently with a pair of tongs, and bend it in the form required with the right 
hand. 



240 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 

ceeds the distance A B, from the glass to the candle. Suppose 
the distance A B to be exactly 6 inches, and the distance A E to 
be 7 feet or 84 inches, then the image of the candle will be mag- 
nified in the proportion of 6 to 84, or 14 times. In this experi- 
ment the candle represents the object to be magnified in a com- 
pound microscope, A the object-glass, and C D the image formed 
by the lens, which is magnified a second time by the eye-glass 
of the microscope. In reference to the solar microscope, the 
candle represents the small object to be magnified, and C D its 
magnified image on a white wall or screen ; and in reference to 
the magic lantern^ or phantasmagoria, the candle represents the 
figures painted on the sliders, A the convex lens which throws 
the image of the figures on a screen, and C D the magnified 
image of the painted figures. In all these instruments, the prin- 
ciple on which the objects are magnified is precisely the same ; 
the size of the image is always in proportion to its distance from 
the lens by which it is formed ; but as the image is enlarged it 
becomes less brilliant and distinct, and therefore there is a pro- 
per medium which must be fixed upon as to the distance between 
the lens and the screen on which the image is thrown ; but a skil- 
ful teacher will always know how to modify such circumstances. 
The nature of a telescope and of the camera ohscura may be 
illustrated as follows : — Fix a lens of 4, 5, or 6 feet focus, in a 
hole made in a window-shutter ; darken the room, so that no light 
can enter but through the lens.* If its focal distance be 5 feet, 
or 60 inches, a white screen placed at that distance will receive 
the image of the objects without, opposite the glass, where they 
will be beautifully depicted in all their forms, colours, and motions, 
in an inverted position, forming a kind of living picture. This 
exhibition never fails to excite the admiration of the young. If 
now, a lens, about 2 inches focus be placed 2 inches beyond the 
image thus formed, and the screen removed — in looking through 
this lens, the objects will appear magnified in the proportion of 
2 inches to 60, that is, 30 times ; and as the image was inverted, 
so the object, as seen through the glass, will appear as if turned 
upside down. This is perhaps one of the best modes of explain- 
ing the principle of a refracting telescope, and the reason why 
the object appears inverted, when viewed with a single eye-glass. 
The same thing may be partly shown by a common telescope. 

* A lens is a round piece of glass, ground either concave or convex. All 
lenses that magnify objects, arc convex, or thicker in the middle than at 
the edge, such as common magnifiers, reading-glasses, and the glasses used 
in microscopes and telescopes, except the Galilean perspective, in which the 
eye-glass is concave. 



OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 



241 



Having taken out all the eye-glasses, except the one next the 
eye, adjust the telescope to distinct vision, and all the objects 
seen through it will appear as if turned upside down. The man- 
ner in which the image is reversed by the other eye-glasses, and 
the object made to appear upright, might then be explained. 
Objects might likewise be exhibited through a telescope, as ap- 
pearing in different positions and directions. This is effected 
by means of a diagonal eye-piece^ which is constructed in the 
following manner : Let A B, Fig. 2, represent a convex glass 
about 2 inches focal distance ; C D a plain metallic speculum, of 

Fig. 2. 




B C 

an oval form, well polished, and placed at half a right angle 

to the axis of the tube ; and E F, another convex lens, 2 inches 
focus. The centre of the speculum may be about 1 \ inch from 
A B, and about ^ inch from E F. The rays proceeding from the 
lens A B, and falling upon the speculum, are reflected in a per- 
pendicular direction to the lens E F, where they enter the eye, 
which looks down upon the object through the side of the tube. 
When this eye-piece is applied to a telescope, with the lens E F 
on the upper part of it, we look down upon the object as if it 
were under our feet. If we turn the eye-piece round in its 
socket a quarter of a circle towards the left, an object directly 
before us in the south will appear as if it were in the west^ and 
turned upside down. If from this position, it is turned round a 
semicircle towards the right, and the eye applied, the same object 
will appear as if it were situated in the east ; and if it be turned 
round another quadrant, till it be directly opposite to its first 
position, and the eye applied from below, the object or landscape 
will appear as if suspended in the atmosphere above us. Such 
experiments, when accompanied with proper diagrams, and an 
explanation of optical principles, may easily be rendered both en- 
tertaining and instructive. 

A camera obscura, on a larger scale, and on a different plan 
from that alluded to above, might be erected on the top of every 
school-house, which is constructed with a flat roof, as formerly 

21 



242 



OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 



suggested. Fig. 3 contains a representation of a wooden build- 
ing, on the top of which is a large convex lens H I, about 10 or 




12 feet focal distance. At half a right angle to this lens is a plain 
speculum, by which the rays of light from the objects O are re- 
flected downwards through the lens, which forms a picture of all 
the objects before the speculum, on a round white table, T, in all 
their colours, motions, and proportions. If the speculum be made 
to revolve, the whole of the surrounding landscape may be suc- 
cessively depicted on the table. When the lens is of a long focal 
distance, as from 10 to 15 or 20 feet, it produces a pretty power- 
ful telescopical effect, so that objects may be distinctly perceived 
at a considerable distance, and individuals recognised on the pic- 
ture at the distance of a mile or more. Wherever there are ob- 
jects in motion, such as ships sailing, birds flying, smoke ascend- 
ing, crowds of people moving to and fro, or boys and girls 
engaged in their amusements ; this exhibition always affords a 
high degree of satisfaction. It might occasionally be used, not 
only as an illustration of optical principles, but also as a reward 
for diligence and good behaviour. 

In connection with the above, representations might be given 
of natural and artificial objects as exhibited by the phantasmal 
goria. Discarding the ridiculous and childish figures which were 
formerly used in the common magic lanterns, opticians have now 
constructed sliders which exhibit representations of the telescopic 



I 



OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 243 

appearances of the heavenly bodies, the different constellations, 
the motions of the earth and moon, and various objects connected 
with botany, mineralogy, and zoology ; and such objects, when 
exhibited in this manner, are calculated to produce both instruc- 
tion and amusement. The solar microscope in particular, (or the 
oxy-hydrogcn, if it can be procured,) should be occasionally ex- 
hibited to the young, to convey to them some ideas of the won- 
derful minuteness of the atoms of matter, and the admirable 
mechanism displayed in the structure of vegetables and the bodies 
of animals, particularly in those myriads of animalculae which 
are invisible to the unassisted eye. Such animalculoe may be 
procured almost at any season, but particularly during the sum- 
mer months, by infusing in separate open vessels, small bits of 
grass or hay, leaves of flowers, or other vegetable substances, 
when, after a week or ten days, animalcula? of different kinds, 
according to the nature of the substances infused, will be per- 
ceived in vast numbers, by the aid of the microscope, in every 
drop of the infusion. A compound microscope is perhaps as good 
an instrument as any other for giving a steady and satisfactory 
view of such objects ; and the only objection to its use for a school 
is, that only one individual can see the object at a time. When 
a teacher is not furnished with an instrument of this kind fitted 
up in the usual way, he may, with little trouble, construct a com- 
pound microscope, by means of the eye-piece of a common pocket 
achromatic telescope, which may be purchased for one guinea, or 
less. The eye- pieces of such telescopes contain four glasses ar- 
ranged on a principle somewhat similar to that of the glasses of 
a compound microscope. If we screw off one of these eye-pieces, 
and look through it in the usual way, holding the object end about 
a quarter of an inch distant from any small object, such as the 
letters of a printed book, it will appear magnified about ten or 
twelve times in length and breadth ; remove from the tube the 
third glass from the eye, which is the second from the object, and 
look through it in the same manner, holding it more than an inch 
distant from the object, and it will appear magnified more than 
twenty times in diameter, or above 400 times in surface. If, by 
means of small pasteboard tubes, or any other contrivance, we 
attach the glass that was taken out of the outside of the object- 
glass of the eye-piece, so as to be nearly close to it, we shall 
have a magnifying power of nearly forty times ; or, if we sub- 
stitute for these two object-glasses a single glass of about a half- 
inch focal distance, we shall form a pretty good compound micro- 
scope, magnifying above forty times in diameter, and 1 600 times 
in surface, which will afford very pleasing views of various ob- 



244 OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 

jects in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The magnifying 
powers now stated will differ somewhat in different eye-pieces, 
according to their lengths and the focal distances of the glasses 
of which they are composed. The tube of the eye-piece thus 
arranged, may be occasionally fitted into a pasteboard tube sup- 
ported by three pillars, in which it may be moved up or down for 
adjusting it to distinct vision, and the object placed underneath 
and properly illuminated. These hints are suggested on the 
score of economy, for those who have no regular microscopic 
apparatus. 

Various amusing experiments besides the above might be exhib- 
ited to the young, such as the optical paradox, an instrument 
through which objects may be seen, although a board or other 
opaque body be interposed between the eye and the objects — the 
prism, which, in a dark room, separates the primary colours of 
the solar rays — the multiplying glass, which makes one object 
appear as if there were ten, twenty, or thirty — the burning glass, 
which, by means of the sun's rays, sets on fire dark coloured 
paper, wood, and other inflammable substances — and optical illu- 
sions produced by the various refractions and reflections of light 
in water, combinations of plane mirrors, and by concave specu- 
lums. A concave mirror, about 5 or 6 inches diameter, and 10 
or 12 inches focus, which maybe procured for about half-a-guinea 
or 15 shillings, is of great utility for a variety of exhibitions. 
1. When held at nearly its focal distance from one's face, it re- 
presents it as magnified to a monstrous size. 2. When held in the 
solar rays, directly opposite the sun, it collects the rays into a 
focus before it, so as to act as a powerful burning-glass, and in 
this way a hole may be burned in a thin board. 3. When hung 
at an elevation of about 5 feet, and a person placed opposite to it, 
at 6 or 7 feet distant, he will see his image hanging in the air in 
an inverted position, between him and the mirror, and if he ap- 
proach a little nearer the mirror, and hold out his hand towards 
it, the image will appear to do the same, as if about to shake 
hands, and if he stretch his hand still nearer the mirror, the hand 
of his image will appear to pass by his hand, and approach nearer 
his body. 4. Such a mirror is of use in explaining the construc- 
tion of a refecting telescope. When it is held opposite to a win- 
dow, the image of the sash and of the objects without the window 
will be seen depicted in its focus on a piece of white paper held 
between it and the window, which represents the manner in which 
the first image is formed by the great mirror of a reflecting tele- 
scope; — and the manner in which the small speculum of a Gre- 
gorian reflector forms the second image, may be shown by hold- 



OPTICAL DECEPTIONS. 245 

ing the mirror at a little more than its focal distance behind a 
candle, and throwing its magnified image upon an opposite wall, 
in the same way as the lens, fig. 1, p. 239, by refraction, pro- 
duced the enlarged image C D. 5. If a bright fire be made in a 
large room, and a very smooth, well-polished mahogany table be 
placed at a considerable distance near the wall, and the concave 
mirror so placed that the light of the fire may be reflected from 
the mirror to its focus on the table — a person standing at a dis- 
tance toward the fire, but not directly in the line between the mir- 
ror and the fire, will see an image of the fire upon the table, 
large and erect, as if the table had been set on fire. 

Various illusions and deceptions have been produced by means 
of concave mirrors. Pagan priests are supposed to have rekindled 
the Vestal fire by this instrument ; and with the same instrument, 
on a large scale, Archimedes is reported to have burned the Ro- 
man fleet. When the mirror is concealed from the view of a 
spectator by certain contrivances, he may be easily deceived and 
tantalized with a shadow instead of a substance. He may be 
made to see a vessel half full of water inverted in the air without 
losing a drop of its contents. He may be desired to grasp what 
appears a beautiful flower, and, when he attempts to touch it, it 
vanishes into air, or a death's-head appears to snap at his fingers. 
He may be made to behold a terrific spectre suddenly starting up 
before him, or a person with a drawn sword, as if about to run 
him through. An exhibition of this kind was some time ago 
brought before the public, which was effected by a concave mir- 
ror. A man being placed with his head downwards, in the focus 
of the mirror, an erect image of him was exhibited, while his real 
person was concealed, and the place of the mirror darkened ; the 
spectators were then directed to take a plate of fruit from his hand, 
which, in an instant, was dexterously changed for a dagger or 
some other deadly weapon. — It may not be improper occasionally 
to exhibit such deceptions to the young, and leave them for some 
time to ruminate upon them till the proper explanations be given, 
in order to induce them to use their rational powers in reflecting 
on the subject, and particularly to teach them to investigate the 
causes of every appearance that may seem mysterious or inex- 
plicable, and not to ascribe to occult or supernatural causes what 
may be explained by an investigation of the established laws of 
nature ; and to guard them against drawing rash or unfounded 
conclusions from any subject or phenomenon which they have 
not thoroughly explored, or do not fully comprehend. 

Having enlarged much farther than I originally intended on the 
preceding departments of Natural Philosophy, I have no space 

21* 



246 CHEMISTRY. 



left for suggesting any hints in relation to electricity, galvanism, 
and magnetism. If the teacher is possessed of an electrical ma- 
chine and a galvanic apparatus, and is acquainted with his sub- 
ject, he has it in his power to exhibit a great variety of very 
striking experiments which can never fail to arrest the attention 
of the juvenile mind, and prepare it for entering on explanations 
of some of the sublimest phenomena of nature. But without these 
instruments very few experiments of any degree of interest can 
be performed in relation to these subjects. The illustration of 
the phenomena of magnetism requires no expensive apparatus. 
Two or three small, and as many large bar magnets — a large 
horse-shoe magnet, a magnetic compass, and a few needles, 
pieces of iron, and steel filings, may be sufficient for illustrating 
the prominent facts in relation to this department of philosophy. 
But as I have already thrown out a few hints on this subject in 
the lesson on the Sagacious Swan* it would be needless to 
enlarge. — My only reason for suggesting the above hints and 
experiments is, to show that any teacher, at a very small expense, 
may have it in his power to illustrate, in a pleasing manner, 
many of the most interesting and practical truths connected with 
natural philosophy. Most of the apparatus alluded to above could 
be procured for two or three pounds, provided the experimenter 
apply his hands and construct a portion of it himself, which he 
can easily do when the materials are provided. In regard to 
philosophical apparatus of every description, were there a general 
demand for it from all classes of the community, it might be 
afforded for less than one half the price now charged for it, as 
certain portions of it might be constructed of cheaper materials 
than are now used ; as elegance in such instruments is not always 
necessary for vse ; as competition would reduce their price to the 
lowest rate, and as there would be no necessity for great profits 
when the manufacturers were certain of a quick and extensive 
sale. 

Chemistry. — Chemistry, in it present improved state, is a sci- 
ence so interesting and useful, so intimately connected with the 
knowledge of nature, the improvement of the useful arts, and 
with every branch of physical and practical science, that an ovt- 
linCj at least, of its leading principles and facts should be com- 
municated to all classes of the young. The distinguishing pro- 
perties of the simple substances, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, 
hydrogen, chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus — particularly 
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and carburetted hydrogen, should be 

* See page 154. 



n * 



MATHEMATICS. 247 

minutely described, and illustrated by experiments, and their ex- 
tensive influence in the system of nature particularly detailed. 
The laws of chemical affinity — the nature and properties o^ heat, 
its radiation and expansive power, and the effects it produces on 
all bodies — the composition and decomposition of water, the na- 
ture of crystallization, the properties of earths, metals, acids, and 
alkalies, the nature of combustion, chemical action and combina- 
tions, the component principles of animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, and various other particulars, may be impressed upon the 
minds of the young, and rendered familiar by a variety of simple 
experiments which can be easily performed. Many of the most 
important and luminous facts of this science may be exhibited by 
the aid of a few Florence flasks, glass tubes, common phials, 
tumblers, wine and ale glasses — of which I intended exhibiting 
some specimens, had my limits permitted. In the meantime I 
refer the reader to Accum's volume entitled " Chemical Amuse- 
ments," which contains a perspicuous description of nearly 200 
interesting experiments on this subject, with an explanation of the 
rationale of each experiment. Griffin's Recreations in Chemis- 
try ; Thomson's, Turner's, Parkes', Graham's and Donovan's 
treatises, or any other modern system of chemistry, may also be 
consulted.* 

Section X. — Mathematics. 

A knowledge of certain departments of the mathematical sci- 
ences is essentially requisite for understanding many of the dis- 
cussions and investigations connected with natural philosophy, 
astronomy, geography, and navigation, and for various practical 
purposes in the mechanical arts ; and, consequently, ought to form 

* Notwithstanding the numerous excellent treatises on natural philosophy 
and chemistry which have been published of late years, we have scarcely 
any books on these subjects exactly adapted for the use of schools. Blair's 
"Grammar of Natural Philosophy," and "Conversations" on the same sub- 
ject, by Mrs. Marcet, contain a comprehensive view of the leading subjects of 
natural philosophy, which may be recommended to the perusal of young 
persons ; but they are scarcely adapted to the purpose of teaching. Dr. 
Comstock of America, formerly mentioned, (page 210,) lately published a 
" System of Natural Philosphy," for the use of students and preceptors, 
which has already passed through nine editions. This volume contains 
about 300 closely printed pages, and above 200 wood-cuts, and comprises a 
popular and scientific illustration of the "Properties of Bodies, Mechanics, 
Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Optics, Astronomy, Elec- 
tricity, and Magnetism," with questions in the margin of every page for 
exercising the judgment of the student. It is calculated for being an ex- 
cellent text-book in colleges and academies ; but would require to be some- 
what reduced and simplified, to adapt it to the use of common schools. 



248 MATHEMATICS. 

a portion of every course of general education. During the first 
stages of elementary instruction, a knowledge of the names and 
some of the properties of angles, triangles, squares, parallelograms, 
trapezoids, trapeziums, circles, ellipses, parallels, perpendiculars, 
and other geometrical lines and figures, may be imparted, on differ- 
ent occasions, by way of amusement, as is generally done in infant 
schools, which would prepare the way for entering on the regular 
study of mathematical science. The usual method of teaching 
mathematics is to commence with the "Elements of Euclid," pro- 
ceeding through the first six, and the eleventh and twelfth books, 
and afterwards directing the attention to the elements of plane and 
spherical trigonometry, conic sections, fluxions and the higher 
algebraic equations, in which the attention of the student is chiefly 
directed to the demonstration of mathematical propositions, with- 
out being much exercised in practical calculations. This is the 
scientific method of instruction generally pursued in colleges and 
academies, and if youths of the age of fourteen or fifteen were 
capable of the attention and abstraction of angelic beings, it would 
likewise be the natural method. But a different method, I pre- 
sume, ought to be pursued in schools chiefly devoted to popular 
instruction. After the pupil has acquired a competent knowledge 
of arithmetic, let him be conducted through the different branches 
o^ practical geometry^ including the mensuration of surfaces and 
solids, artificers' work and land-surveying, exhibiting occasionally 
a demonstration of some of the rules, in so far as he is able to 
comprehend it. After which, a selection should be made from 
Euclid, (chiefly from the first book,) of those propositions which 
have a practical bearing, and which form the foundation of prac- 
tical geometry and the operations of plane trigonometry. These, 
which might be comprehended within the limits of thirty or forty 
propositions, should be arranged into a kind of system, which 
might be divided into propositions relating to quadrilateral figures, 
triangles, circles, and conic sections. The demonstrations of 
these should be clear and explicit, and as simple as the nature of 
the subject will admit, and the steps of the demonstration of each 
proposition should be thoroughly understood before proceeding to 
another. At the same time, the bearing of the truths demonstrated 
upon the several practical operations of geometry, and their gene* 
ral utility, should be distinctly pointed out as the teacher proceeds 
in his demonstrations ; and the pupil, having previously been oc- 
cupied in calculations relating to geometrical figures, will be en- 
abled to appreciate such demonstrations, and will feel a greater 
interest in such exercises than he would otherwise do, were he to 
consider them as relating merely to abstract truths which have 



I! 



MATHEMATICS. 249 

no useful tendency. He might next proceed to the statements and 
calculations connected with the diflerent cases of plane trigonome- 
try, applying them to the mensuration of all the cases of terres- 
trial heights and distances, and to the determining of the distances 
and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies and the altitude of the 
lunar mountains. 

This is the whole course of mathematical instruction I would 
deem it necessary to communicate in the first instance ; — and, 
with a knowledge of the practical operations of geometry and 
trigonometry, and of the principles on which they are founded, 
the pupil would be enabled to understand all the prominent parts 
of useful science to which mathematical principles are applicable, 
and to apply them to the practical purposes of life. If he feel a 
peculiar relish for mathematical investigations, or if his situation 
or profession in future life require an extensive knowledge of the 
higher departments of this study, he can easily prosecute, at his 
leisure, such studies to any extent, on the foundation of what he 
had previously acquired. When a young person, of the age of 
twelve or fourteen, commences the study of" Euclid's Elements," 
or any similar work, he is at a loss to conceive what useful pur- 
pose can be served by fixing his mind on squares, parallelograms 
and triangles, and pestering himself in demonstrating their rela- 
tions and proportions. After encountering some difficulties, he 
perhaps acquires a pretty clear conception of the demonstrations 
of the first and most simple propositions ; but as he proceeds in 
his course, the propositions become more complex and difficult to 
be conceived, and the steps of the demonstration more tedious 
and complicated ; he forgets the conclusions formerly deduced, 
his mind becomes bewildered, and, in too many instances, he 
follows his preceptor in the dark, relying more on his authorita- 
tive assertions than on a clear perception of the force of his de- 
monstrations ; his ideas become confused, and he loses all relish 
for the study, because he cannot perceive the practical purposes 
to which such abstract speculations can be applied. This, it may 
be affirmed, is the case with more than one- half of those who 
attempt the study of pure mathematics at an early age, without 
having previously been exercised in the practical operations of the 
science. It is for this reason I would recommend a short course, 
or outline of practical geometry and trigonometry before proceed- 
ing to the demonstration of theorems, or the more abstract parts 
of mathematical science. So far as my experience goes, I have 
uniformly found, that those who had been well exercised in the 
different branches of mensuration, and the practical parts of 
trigonometry, previous to their entering on a course of pure 



260 PHYSIOLOGY. 

mathematics, have acquired a relish for such studies, and become 
eminent proficients in them ; while their fellow-students, who had 
no previous experience in practical calculations, lagged far behind 
them, and seldom entered into the spirit of such subjects. I could 
point to several individuals of this description, who ultimately at- 
tained the highest mathematical prizes bestowed at the colleges 
and academies at which they attended. 

Section XL — Physiology, 

This is a department of knowledge which has never yet been 
introduced into any seminary, as a branch of general education. 
It is somewhat unaccountable, and not a little inconsistent, that, 
while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the 
earth and survey its mountains, rivers, seas, and continents, and 
guide their views to the regions of the firmament, where they 
may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and 
thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances, — that, 
while we direct their attention to the structure and habits of quad- 
rupeds, birds, fishes, and insects, and even to the microscopic 
animalculse in a drop of water — we should never teach them to 
look into themselves, to consider their own corporeal structures, 
the numerous parts of which they are composed, the admirable 
functions they perform, the wisdom and goodness displayed in 
their mechanism, and the lessons of practical instruction which 
may be derived from such contemplations. An intelligent writer 
in the " American Annals of Education," has justly remarked — 
" The person who should occupy a dwelling seventy, eighty, or 
a hundred years, and yet be unable to tell the number of its apart- 
ments, or the nature and properties of any of its materials, per- 
haps even the number of stories of which it consisted — would be 
thought inexcusably ignorant. Yet, with the exception of medi- 
cal men, and here and there an individual belonging to the other 
professions, is there one person in a thousand who knows any 
thing about the elementary materials — the structure or even the 
number of apartments in the present habitation of his mind?" It 
is not because this study is either uninteresting or unaccompanied 
with mental gratification, that it is so generally neglected ; for to 
" know ourselves,^'' both physically and intellectually, is one of 
the first duties of man, and such knowledge has an extensive 
practical tendency, and is calculated to gratify the principle of 
curiosity, and to produce emotions of admiration and pleasure. 
"Does it afford no pleasure," says the writer I have now quoted, 
*' to study the functions of the stomach and liver, and other organs 
concerned in changing a mass of beaten food, perhaps some of 



PHYSIOLOGY. 251 

the coarser vegetables, into blood? — -of the heart, and arteries, 
and veins, which convey this fluid, to the amount of three gallons, 
through all parts of the body once in four minutes ? — of the lungs, 
which restore the half-spoiled blood to its wonted purity, as fast 
as it is sent into them, and enable it once more to pursue a health- 
ful course through its ten thousand channels? — of the brain, and 
especially the nerves, which by their innumerable branches spread 
themselves over every soft part of the human system (and some 
of the harder parts) which they can possibly penetrate, in such 
numbers that we can nowhere insert the point of the finest needle 
without piercing them ? — of the skin, every square inch of which 
contains the mouths or extremities of a million of minute vessels? 
Is all this, I say, uninteresting? Is there no wisdom displayed in 
the construction of so complicated, and yet so wonderful a ma- 
chine, and endowing it with the power of retaining an average 
heat of 96 or 98 degrees, whether the surrounding atmosphere 
be heated to 100 degrees or cooled to 32, or even to a much 
lower point ? Is there, moreover, no mental discipline involved 
in the study of physiology ?"* 

The evils arising from ignorance of the corporeal functions, 
and of the circumstances by which they are impaired, are numer- 
ous and much to be deplored. From ignorance of the structure 
and functions of the digestive organs, parents, in many instances, 
allow their children to eat and drink every thing they desire, and 
to gorge their stomachs, till diseased action of the organs con- 
nected with digestion necessarily ensues, accompanied with the 
other disorders which generally follow in its train. To the same 
cause is owing the practice of administering to infants, cordials, 
elixirs, laudanum, and spirituovs liquors — a practice in which no 
person will indulge who is acquainted with the laws which regulate 
the functions of the corporeal frame, and which has a tendency 
not only to injure the individual, but to perpetuate a degenerated 
race through successive generations. From ignorance of the na- 
ture of perspiration, and the functions of the skin, children are 
permitted to wallow in dirtiness and filth, to remain moist, cold, 
and benumbed, and to pass days and even weeks without being 
washed or receiving a change of linens ; by which they are, soon- 
er or later, subjected to cutaneous and inflammatory disorders. 
Ignorance of this subject has likewise led to those awkward at- 

* Mr. Alcott, " American Annals of Education," for September, 1833, — 
a journal which is conducted with admirable spirit by Mr. Woodbridge, and 
which contains a variety of valuable communications, and much important 
statistical information, respecting the improvements going forward in Eu- 
rope and America, in connection with the subject of education. 



252 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



tempts, particularly on the part of the female sex, to remodel the 
human frame, as if they could improve the mechanism and sym- 
metry devised by Infinite Wisdom. Hence the derangement of 
the physical system produced by laced stays, strait jackets, 
corsets, and other absurd articles of dress, by which the ribs are 
compressed, the spine bent out of its place, and the free expan- 
sion of the lungs prevented.; the consequences of which are, — 
diseases of the breast, shortness of breath, external callosities, 
defective digestion, tubercles of the lungs, and a tendency to pul- 
monary consumption. The following figures show how such un- 
natural practices tend to distort even the very bones, as well as 
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 





the muscular part of the body. They are taken from No. 58. 
of the " Penny Magazine." Fig. 1 . is an outline of the cele- 
brated statue of the Venus de Medicis, which is considered as the 
most beautiful and symmetrical model of a fine female figure. 
Fig. 2. is the skeleton of a similar figure, with the bones ia 
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 





PHYSIOLOGY. 253 

their natural position. Fig. 3. is an outline of the figure of a 
modern fashionable lady, after it has been permanently remodelled 
by stays. Fig. 4. is a skeleton belonging to such a figure as No. 
3. From these figures it appears that the size of the chest be- 
longing to figures 3 and 4, is obviously much less than that of 
figures 1 and 2, and consequently, the parts which it embraces 
must be unnaturally compressed, to the injury of symmetry and 
beauty, as well as to the impeding of the vital functions. 

But it will naturally be asked, How shall we find means to 
communicate a knowledge of physiology in common schools? A 
thorough knowledge of this subject, such as a regular medical 
practitioner requires, cannot be communicated in such seminaries, 
nor would it be necessary, or even expedient, to make the attempt. 
Human subjects could not be dissected before the eyes of the 
young, nor would it be proper to accustom them to witness such 
operations. A general knowledge of the parts of the human 
frame, of their relative positions, and of the functions they per- 
form in the animal system, is all that is requisite to be imparted ; 
and there are several modes by which such a view of the mech- 
anism of the human body may be exhibited. 1. It is well known 
that the skill of the anatomist, combined with that of the modeller, 
has enabled him to construct a model or representation of the 
human system. This model, which has been sometimes called a 
mannikin, or artificial man, is formed with so much skill and 
ingenuity as to exhibit the principal veins and arteries, the nerves, 
the muscles, the lungs, liver, stomach, kidneys, and most other 
parts, nearly as distinctly as they appear in the real human sub- 
ject. Such a model, could it be procured, would answer all the 
purposes of general instruction. The only valid objection that 
could be made to its introduction would be, the expense with which 
it would be necessarily attended. 2. An idea of the form and 
position of those parts connected with the vital functions, which 
are contained within the thorax and abdomen^ may be obtained 
by dissecting some of our domestic quadrupeds. Although the 
mechanism of these animals is somewhat different from that of 
man, yet the organs contained in the cavity of the breast and ab- 
domen are essentially the same, though diflibring in some minute 
particulars — are placed nearly in the same relative positions, and 
perform the same or similar functions as in the human system. 
As hares, rabbits, and other quadrupeds are frequently slaughtered 
for food, and as dogs and cats sometimes require to be killed, 
opportunities might be taken of dissecting such animals, and 
showing the forms and positions of those parts which most nearly 
resemble those of the human subject. I recollect, when young, 

2-2 



254 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



having received my first clear ideas of the form and position of 
the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach, &c. from the dissection 
of a cat^ of which the anatomical figures I had in my power 
to inspect, could afford no accurate or satisfactory conception. 
3. Dried preparations of certain parts of the human body — por- 
tions of'the muscular parts, such as the heart, liver, &c. preserved 
in spirits — skulls, and detached portions of the skeleton — might 
be occasionally procured, which might serve for the illustration 
of particular functions. 4. Where such objects as the above can- 
not be procured, some general and useful ideas on this subject 
may be communicated by means of large coloured anatomical 
plates. These are found necessary to accompany every course 
of anatomical dissection ; and, although they cannot convey the 
same accurate ideas which may be obtained by a direct inspection 
of the human subject, yet none will deny that a very considerable 
degree of useful information may in this way be obtained, espe- 
cially with the assistance of a teacher who can explain, with sim- 
plicity and clearness, the several organs and functions of the ani- 
mal system. Supposing a person knew nothing of the internal 
parts of the human body, it is evident, that, from such a figure as 




PHYSIOLOGY. 255 

the preceding, an idea might be obtained of the relative sftuations 
of the lungs, the heart, the diaphragm, the liver, the gall-bladder, 
the pancreas, the stomach, the kidneys, and various other parts, 
and much more so from a variety of separate figures delineated 
on a large scale, and coloured after nature. There would be no 
necessity for exhibiting or describing any other parts or organs 
but those which are common to both sexes, so that there would 
be no room for objections on the score of indelicacy. The female 
sex, however, as well as the male, ought to be instructed in this 
science ; for, as females have the physical education of children 
more immediately under their control, it is of vast importance to 
the human race at large, that they should be endowed with that 
knowledge of the functions of the human frame, which will en- 
able them to conduct such education with intelligence and discre- 
tion. There is no department of science, moreover, in which a 
pious and intelligent teacher has a better opportunity of directing 
the minds of his pupils to the evidences of design, and of descant- 
ing on the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, than when 
describing the mechanism of the human frame. In the various 
articulations of the bones, in the construction of the^ venous and 
arterial system, in the process of respiration, in the circulation 
of the blood, in the muscular and nervous systems, in the motion 
of the heart, in the mechanism of the eye and the ear, in the con- 
struction of the spine, the hand, the skull, and other parts of this 
admirable machine, the Divine Wisdom and benevolence shine 
conspicuous ; and, when clearly exhibited to the young, must im- 
press their minds with the truth that they are, indeed, ^^ fearfully 
and wonderfully made,'''' and that they ought to consecrate the 
temple of their bodies for " a habitation of God through the Spirit." 
One great practical end which should always be kept in view 
in the study of physiology is the invigoration and improvement 
of the corporeal powers and functions, the preservation of health, 
and the prevention of disease. For this purpose frequent instruc- 
tion, illustrated by examples, should be imparted in relation to 
diet and regimen. The young should be instructed in the laws 
of the animal economy, and the sources of diseases ; the practices 
which induce certain disorders, and the means of counteracting 
them ; the functions of the skin, lungs, stomach, and bowels ; the 
nature and importance of insensible perspiration, the means of 
regulating it, and the evils which flow from its obstruction ; the 
rules which should be observed in bathing and swimming; the 
importance of pure atmospheric air to the health and vigour of 
the animal system, the circumstances by which it is deteriorated, 
and the means by which its purity may be preserved ; the neces- 



256 LOGIC. 

sity o£ cleanliness, in respect to the hands, face, neck, and other 
parts of the body, and to the clothes, linens, blankets, sheets, and 
household furniture, and the rules which should be attended to for 
preserving the person and dwelling from filth and noxious efflu- 
via ; the articles most proper for dress, and the mode of con- 
structing it so as not to impede the vital functions ; the proper 
use o[food and drink, and especially the moral and physical evils 
which flow from intemperance, and the frequent use of ardent 
spirits; the exercise and rest requisite for body and mind, the 
means by which they may be duly proportioned, and the evils 
which arise from immoderate exertion either of the menial or cor- 
poreal powers ;* the improvement of the organs of sensation, par- 
ticularly the organs of vision, and the treatment requisite for pre- 
serving them in health and vigour. Instructions on these and 
similar topics, when occasionally illustrated by striking facts and 
examples, could scarcely fail to exert a powerful and beneficial 
influence on the minds of the young, on the families with which 
they are connected, on society at large, and even on succeeding 
generations. That such information has never yet been regu- 
larly communicated in our schools and seminaries, reflects dis- 
grace on our scholastic arrangements, which are frequently 
directed to objects of far inferior importance. Till such instruc- 
tions be generally communicated, in connection with other por- 
tions of useful knowledge, man will never rise to the highest dig- 
nity of his physical and intellectual nature, nor enjoy the happi- 
ness of which he is susceptible even in the present state. 

Section XII. — Logic, or the Art of Reasoning. 

Logic may be defined to be " that art or branch of knowledge 
which has for its object the investigation of truth, and the best 
method of communicating it to others ;" or, in other words, the 
art of employing our rational faculties in the best manner in 
searching after truth and duty on any subject. Although all men 
have essentially the same mental faculties, yet there is a great 
difl^erence in respect to the vigour of these faculties in different 
individuals, according to the improvement they have received, and 
the objects to which they have been directed. The improvement 
of the reasoning powers, and the manner in which they have 
been exercised by the wise and learned in Europe, America, and 
other parts of the civilized world, have raised them almost as 
high in the scale of intelligence above the Hottentots, the African 
negroes, or the inhabitants of New Holland or Nootka Sound, as 

* See Appendix. 



SUMMARY VIEW OF LOGIC. 267 

those savages are superior to the beasts of the forest or the fowls 
of heaven. The acquisition of truth, in relation to all those sub- 
jects which are connected with the present and future happiness 
of man, is obviously a matter of the highest importance. By 
the proper application of our reasoning faculty we become ac- 
quainted with the properties and relations of the objects around 
us in this lower world, and the distances, magnitudes, and real 
motions of the celestial bodies, and the purposes for which they 
appear to have been created. By the same means we acquire a 
knowledge of the perfections of God, the principles of Natural 
Religion, the evidences of Divine Revelation, the improvements 
of art, and the discoveries of science. By the cultivation of 
reason we discover our duty to God and to our fellow -creatures, 
either from the light of nature or from the study of Revelation, 
and learn to distinguish truth from falsehood, and good from evil ; 
and to apply the truths we thus acquire to the direction of our 
moral conduct, to the promotion of human happiness, and to the 
invigorating of our hopes of eternal felicity. 

It is therefore a matter of considerable importance, that, at an 
early period, the reasoning powers of the young be directed, both 
by precepts and examples, in their inquiries after truth, and guard- 
ed from the influence of false principles and fallacious reasonings, 
by which errors have been propagated, prejudices promoted, truth 
obscured, and the improvement of the human race prevented. — 
Were this subject to be illustrated in all its extent, it would be 
requisite, in the first place, to give a description and analysis of 
the intellectual powers, which are the means or instruments by 
which we are to pursue our discovery after truth. In the second 
place, to exhibit an arrangement and classification of the objects 
in nature to which these powers are applied. In the third place, 
to illustrate the most successful method of applying our natural 
powers in the investigation of truth ; and lastly, to explain the 
best method of communicating the truth to others, when discover- 
ed. Under the first head, it would be requisite to enter into the 
discussion of the faculties of sensation and perception, attention, 
consciousness, memory, conception, abstraction, imagination, judg- 
ment, taste, the moral faculty, and other powers ; or, according 
to the phrenological system, the knoicing and ref,ecting faculties, 
the moral sentiments, and the animal propensities — which may 
be considered as so many different modes of the operation of mind. 
Under the second, a brief view might be given of the peculiar 
characteristics of mijid and matter, and a more particular survey 
of the sciences, or the knowledge which men have acquired re- 
specting the objects of human thought, which might be arranged 

22* 



258 SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH LOGIC. 

under the three following heads : — 1. History, comprehending 
sacred, prophetic, and ecclesiastical history ; literary history, in- 
cluding the history of philosophy and the arts ; civil history, in- 
cluding particular history, general history, memoirs, antiquities, 
and biography ; also, geography and chronology, which have 
been denominated the Eyes of history ; natural history, including 
mineralogy, botany, and general zoology, meteorology, geology, 
and the facts which relate to the heavenly bodies. — 2. Philosophy, 
including ontology, the mathematical sciences, pure and mixed; 
natural and revealed theology ; esthetics, or the science of our 
feelings and emotions; ethics, logic, political economy and legis- 
lation; natural philosophy, chemistry, physical astronomy, medi- 
cine, the physiology of plants, human and comparative anatomy, 
&c. — 3. Art, including {he fine arts, as poetry, oratory, painting, 
architecture, gardening, &c. ; the liberal arts, as practical logic, 
practical geometry, practical chemistry, surgery, &c. and the 
mechanical arts, as dyeing, weaving, clock and watch making, 
&c. Under the third head might be illustrated the different kinds 
of evidence, as the evidence of intellection, of sense, of testimony, 
of analogy, &c. and the means by which evidence on any sub- 
ject may be most successfully obtained ; which would include a 
discussion of the modes of reasoning by syllogism, induction, 
analysis, and synthesis — of the sources of error, and of the dispo- 
sitions and circumstances among mankind from which errors and 
fallacious reasonings arise — a subject which would require to be 
illustrated with considerable minuteness from the facts of history, 
and the circumstances which exist in the present state of the 
human race. Under the fourth head might be included — 1. A 
general view of the different means which men have employed 
for communicating their thoughts to each other. — 2. An explana- 
tion of the nature of arbitrary signs, and the principles of universal 
grammar. — 3. An enumeration and description of the different 
qualities of style, and the best method of constructing a discourse 
on any subject. 

To a class of young persons, about the age of fifteen or sixteen, 
a popular illustration of some of the above topics might be at- 
tended with many beneficial effects, particularly in inducing upon 
them habits of reasoning and reflection, and guarding them against 
the influence of prejudices, and sophistical arguments and reason- 
ings. Although it would evidently be injudicious and premature 
to attempt such discussions in primary schools, yet a judicious 
teacher, well acquainted with the science of mind and the nature 
of evidence, might occasionally illustrate certain parts of this sub- 
ject, particularly in teaching the young to reason with propriety 



POPtlLAR ILLUSTRATIONS OF RF.ASONING. 259 

on any familiar objects or incidents with which they are acquaint- 
ed. It may be laid down as an axiom, that from the earliest 
dawn of reason children should he accvstomed to exercise their 
reasoning faculty on every object to tvhich their attention is 
directed, and taught to assign a reason for every opinion they 
adopt, and every action they perform. Without troubling them 
with explanations of the various forms and moods of syllogisms, 
they may be taught the nature of reasoning, and the force of 
arguments, by fftmiliar examples taken from sensible objects with 
which they are in some measure acquainted. Logicians define 
reasoning to be that power which enables us, by the intervention 
of intermediate ideas, to perceive the relation of two ideas, or 
their agreement or disagreement. This might be illustrated to 
the young by such examples as the following : — Suppose there 
are two tables, A and B, which cannot be applied to each other, 
and we wish to know whether A be longer or shorter than B ; 
we endeavour to find an " intermediate idea," or measure, name- 
ly, a three-feet rule, and apply it, first to table A, and then to table 
B. We find that A measures thirty-six inches, coinciding exactly 
with the three-feet rule, and that B measures only thirty-four 
inches; therefore, the inference or conclusion, at which we wish- 
ed to arrive, is evident, that table A is longer than table B. 
Again, suppose we would know whether the space contained in 
the triangle C, be equal to, or greater or less than that contained 
in the circle E ; we cannot apply these figures to each other in 




order to determine this point ; we must therefore search for an 
intermediate idea which will apply to both. We fix on a square 
— a square foot for example, and from the length of the base, E 
F, and the perpendicular F G, in the triangle C, we find the 



260 POPULAR LOGIC. 

number of square feet to be 160. Having tbe length of the dia- 
meter of the circle, H I, we find that there are likewise 160 square 
feet contained within its circumference ; and therefore the con- 
clusion is evident, that the space contained within the triangle C 
is equal to that contained in the circle E. This example, reduced 
to the form of a syllogism, would stand thus : Any two figures 
which contain the same number of square feet are equal to one 
another ; but the triangle C contains the same number of square 
feet as the circle E ; therefore the space contained in the triangle 
C is equal to the space contained within the circle E. 

Again, the sun appears to be only a few inches in diameter, 
and as flat as the face of a clock or a plate of silver. .Suppose 
it were inquired how we may determine that the sun is much 
larger than he appears to be, and whether his surface be flat or 
convex, or of any other figure, — the pupil may be requested to 
search for intermediate ideas, by which these points may be de- 
termined. One idea or principle, which experience proves, 
requires to be recognized, that all objects appear less in size^ in 
proportion to their distance from the observer. A large building, 
at the distance of twenty miles, appears to the naked eye only 
like a visible point ; and a dog, a horse, or a man, are, at such 
a distance, altogether invisible. We find, by experience, that 
when the sun has just risen above the horizon in the morning, 
he appears as large as he does, when on our meridian at noon- 
day ; but it can be proved, that he is then nearly 4000 miles (or 
the half diameter of the earth) nearer to us than when he arose in 
the morning ; therefore, the sun must be at a great distance from 
us, at least several thousands of miles, otherwise he would appear 
much larger in the one case than in the other, just as a house or 
a town appears much larger than when we approach within a 
mile of it than it does at the distance of eight or ten miles. It is 
known that the inhabitants of Great Britain, and those who live 
about the Cape of Good Hope, can see the sun at the same mo- 
ment ; and that he appears no larger to the one than to the other, 
though they are distant in a straight line more than 5000 miles 
from each other. We also know, from experience, that when 
we remove 50 or a hundred miles to the west of our usual place 
of residence, the sun appears, at his rising, just as large as he did 
before ; and though we are removed from our friends several 
hundreds or even thousands of miles, they will tell us that the 
sun uniformly appears of the same size, at the same moment as 
he does to us. From these and similar considerations, it appears, 
that the sun must be at a very considerable distance from the 
earth, and consequently his real magnitude must be much greater 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF REASONING. 261 

than his apparent, since all bodies appear less in size in propor- 
tion to their distance. If the distance of the sun were only 4000 
miles from the earth, he would appear tirice as large when he 
came to the meridian, as he did at his rising in tlie east; if his 
distance were only 100,000 miles, he would appear gV part 
broader when on the meridian than at his rising — but this is not 
found to be the case; consequently, the sun is more than 100,000 
miles distant, and therefore must be of a very large size. Sup- 
posing him no farther distant than 100,000 miU^s, he behoved to 
be nearly a thousand miles in diameter, or about the size of Arabia 
or the United States of America. 

To determine whether the sun be Jfat or convex, we must call 
in to our assistance the following ideas. Every round body 
which revolves around an axis, perpendicular to the line of 
vision, without altering its figure or apparent dimensions, is of 
a convex or globular shape ; — and, Every object which appears 
of a circular shape near the centre of such a body, will assume 
an oval or elliptical form when it approaches near its margin. 
This might be illustrated by fixing a circular patch on a terrestrial 
globe, and turning it round till it appear near the margin. By 
means of the telescope, it is found that there are occasionally 
spots upon the sun, which appear first at the eastern limb, and, 
in the course of about 13 days, approach the western limb, where 
they disappear, and, in the course of another 13 days, reappear 
on the eastern limb ; which shows that the sun revolves round an 
axis without altering his shape. It is also observed that a spot, 
which appears nearly circular at his centre, presents an oval 
figure when near his margin. Consequently, the sun is not a flat 
surface, as he appears at first sight, but a globular body. — Again, 
suppose it was required to determine whether the sun or the moon 
be nearest the earth. The intermediate idea which requires to 
be recognised in this case is the following. Every body which 
throws a shadow on another is nearer the body on ivhich the 
shadow falls than the luminous body which is the cause of the 
shadow. In an eclipse of the sun, the body of the moon projects 
a shadow upon the earth, by which either the whole or a portion 
of the sun's body is hid from our view. Consequently, the moon 
is interposed between us and the sun, and therefore is nearer to 
the earth than that luminary. This might be illustrated to the 
young by a candle, and two balls, the one representing the moon 
and the other the earth, placed in a direct line from the candle. 
— In like manner, were it required, when the moon is eclipsed, 
to ascertain whether at that time the earth or the moon be nearest 
to the sun, it might be determined by the same process of reason- 



262 POPULAR LOGIC. 

ing; and, on the same principle, it is determined that the planets 
Mercury and Venus, when they transit the sun's disk, are, in that 
part of their orbits, nearer the earth than the sun is. 

Such reasonings as the above might be familiarly explained, 
and, in some cases, illustrated by experiments ; and the pupil oc- 
casionally requested to put the arguments into the form of a syl- 
logism. The reasoning respecting the bulk of the sun may be 
put into the following syllogistic form : — 

All objects appear diminished in size in proportion to their dis- 
tances. 

The sun is proved to be many thousands of miles distant, and 
consequently, diminished in apparent size. 

Therefore the sun is much larger in reality than what he ap- 
pears. 

The two first propositions are generally denominated the pre- 
mises. The first is called the major proposition, the second the 
minor proposition. If the major proposition be doubtful, it requires 
to be proved by separate arguments or considerations. In the 
above example, it may be proved, or rather illustrated, to the 
young, by experiment — such as placing a 12-inch globe, or any 
similar body, at the distance of half a mile, when it will appear 
reduced almost to a point. If the minor, or second proposition 
be doubtful, it must likewise be proved, by such considerations as 
suggested above ; or by a strictly mathematical demonstration, if 
the pupils are capable of understanding it. But, in the present 
case, the arguments above stated are quite sufficient to prove the 
point intended. When the premises are clearly proved, the con- 
clusion follows as a matter of course. Similar examples of 
reasoning may be multiplied to an almost indefinite extent, and, 
in the exercise of instructing the young, they should always be 
taken from sensible objects with which they are acquainted. 

As it would be quite preposterous to attempt instructing young 
persons, under the age of twelve or thirteen, in the abstract systems 
of logic generally taught in our universities — it is quite sufficient 
for all the practical purposes of human life and of science, that 
they be daily accustomed to employ their reasoning powers on the 
various physical, intellectual, and moral objects and circumstances 
which may be presented before them ; and an enlightened and 
judicious teacher will seldom be at a loss to direct their attention 
to exercises of this kind. The objects of nature around them, 
the processes of art, the circumstances and exercises connected 
with their scholastic instruction, their games and amusements, the 
manner in which they conduct themselves towards each other, 
their practices in the streets or on the highways, and the general 



POPULAR LOGIC. 263 

tenor of their moral conduct, will never fail to supply topics for 
the exercise of their rational faculties, and for the improvement 
of their moral powers. In particular, they should be accustomed, 
on all occasions, to assign a reason for et^ery fact they admit, 
and every truth they profess to believe. If, for example, they 
assert, on the ground of what they read in books, or on the au- 
thority of their teachers, that " the earth is round like an artificial 
globe," they should be required to bring forward the proofs by 
which this position is supported, so that their knowledge may be 
the result, not of authority, but of conviction. In like manner, 
when they profess to believe that the earth moves round its axis 
and round the sun — that the atmosphere presses with a weight of 
fifteen pounds on every square inch of the earth's surface — that 
a magnet will stand in a direction nearly north and south — that 
water presses upwards as well as downwards — that it is our duty 
and interest to obey the laws of God — that we ought to exercise 
justice between man and man — and that children should obey 
their parents and teachers, — they should be taught to bring for- 
ward, when required, those experiments, arguments, and reason- 
ings, by which such truths are proved and supported. 

As an illustration of some of the modes of reasoning to which 
I allude, the following story respecting the celebrated French 
philosopher, Gassendi, may be here introduced. From his 
earliest years he was particularly attentive to all that he heard in 
conversation, and was fond of contemplating the scenes of nature, 
particularly the magnificence of a starry sky. When only seven 
years old, he felt a secret charm in the contemplation of the stars, 
and, without the knowledge of his parents, he sacrificed his sleep 
to this pleasure. One evening a dispute arose between him and 
his young companions, about the motion of the moon, and that 
of the clouds when they happened to be impelled by a brisk 
wind. His friends insisted that the clouds were still, and that it 
was the moon which moved. He maintained, on the contrary, 
that the moon had no sensible motion, such as they imagined, and 
that it was the clouds which appeared to pass so swiftly. His 
reasons produced no effect on the minds of the children, who 
trusted to their own eyes rather than to anything that could be 
said on the subject. It was, therefore, necessary to undeceive 
them by means of their eyes. For this purpose Gassendi took 
them under a tree, and made them observe that the moon still 
appeared between the same leaves and branches, while the clouds 
sailed far away out of sight. This exhibition, of course, was 
convincing, and at once settled the dispute. 

The principle, or "intermediate idea," which Gassendi rccog- 



264 



POPULAR LOGIC. 



nized, in this case, for proving his position, was the following, 
although he could not at that time express it in words : — Whe7i 




Gassendi deinonslral'mg the motion of the clouds. 

motion appears in the case of two bodies, we ascertain which is 
the moving body, by causing one of them to appear in a straight 
line with an object which is knoivn to be fixed. This principle 
is of considerable practical utility. By means of it we ascertain, 
when we see a number of ships in a river, or narrow arm of the 
sea, which of them are in motion or at rest, by comparing their 
positions or motions with a fixed point on the opposite shore. 
When looking at the wheels, pinions, and other parts of a piece 
of machinery, we can, on the same principle, perceive which 
parts are in motion and which are at rest, which the eye at first 
view cannot determine ; and, in the same way, the real and ap- 
parent motions of the planets in the heaven? are ascertained, by 



POPULAR LOGIC. 265 

comparing them with the position of the stars, M'hich may be re- 
garded as so many fixed points for directing the astronomer in his 
investigations. The principle above stated, therefore, was the 
major proposition in Gassendi's reasoning, and the minor propo- 
sition was the following : — " When we bring a tree, which is a 
fixed object, in a direct line between our eye and the moon, she 
appears for a kw seconds to have no sensible motion, while the 
clouds have passed away." Therefore the conclusion follows, 
that " the motion which was the subject of dispute was not in the 
moon, but in the clouds." 

Subjects might occasionally be prescribed in schools, for the 
purpose of exercising the reasoning powers of the young, and 
proving the truth of certain positions. Suppose it were proposed 
as an exercise, to prove that air exists, although it cannot he 
seen, — a certain time might be allowed for every one to think and 
to converse on the subject, when some one or other of the follow- 
ing proofs, though in different words, would probably be stated. 
1. Take a rod, and make it pass rapidly through what appears 
empty space, and you will hear a sound and feel a slight resist- 
ance. 2. Take a large fan or umbrella, and push it forcibly from 
you, and you will feel a considerable resistance, and hear a sound, 
and a person opposite will feel a certain impression made on his 
face. 3. Take a very large umbrella, and stand on the top of a 
stair or building 15 or 20 feet high, and you may jump from such 
a position while holding it stretched, and gradually descend to 
the ground without injury. 4. Plunge a glass jar into a vessel 
of water, with its mouth downwards, and only a very small 
quantity of water will enter the glass, which shows that there is 
something in the glass which excludes the water ; and this is the 
reason why we cannot fill a vessel with water by plunging its 
orifice downwards. 5. Take a smooth cylindrical tube, shut at 
one end, and fit a plug exactly to its open end, and no force 
whatever can push it to the bottom of the tube, which shows that 
there is some invisible substance that prevents it. 6. Open a pair 
of common bellows, and shut up the nozle and valve-hole, and 
it will be impossible to bring the boards together, in consequence 
of the resistance of an invisible substance within. 7. Take a 
telescope, of a high magnifying power, and look through it to 
distant objects, in the forenoon of a hot summer-day, and you 
will see the air undulating about the objects like the waves of the 
sea. All which circumstances show that there is a material, 
though invisible substance around us, which resists a force, pro- 
duces a sound, excludes other bodies from occupying the same 

23 



266 POPULAR LOGIC. 

Space, and whose undulations^ in certain circumstances, may be 
rendered visible. 

Again, suppose it were required to prove the following position, 
that " it is highly expedient that the whole community should en- 
joy the benefits of an intellectual and religious education," 
such arguments as the following might be brought forward. 1. 
Such an education invigorates the faculties and enlarges the 
capacity of the mind. 2. It presents to the view objects of de- 
lightful contemplation, which exercise the rational powers, and 
contribute to the happiness of the individual. 3. It prepares the 
young for acting an honourable and upright part in society. 4. 
It qualifies them for the several professions in which they may 
afterwards be employed. 5. It tends to undermine foolish and 
superstitious notions, and to prevent diseases and fatal accidents. 
6. It prepares the mind for a rational contemplation of the works 
of God, and of his perfections as therein displayed. 7. It fits 
them for taking a part in the elective franchise of their country. 

8. It prepares them for understanding the Scriptures, and for re- 
ceiving profit by their attendance on the ordinances of religion. 

9. It qualifies them for advancing the cause of useful knowledge, 
and for promoting the reformation and improvement of their 
species. 10. It tends to the prevention of intemperance, tumults, 
crimes, and all those vices and evils which result from ignorance; 
and lead to the practice of the Christian virtues. 11. It prepares 
the soul for the employments and the felicity of the heavenly 
world, &c. — Again, suppose the question, " Is it the duty and in- 
terest of all men to love one another?" to be given as an exercise 
of thought and reasoning. Independently of the positive com- 
mand of God in relation to this duty, such considerations and 
arguments as the following might be brought forward. Men 
ought to love one another — 1. Because they are all brethren of 
the same family, descended from the same original pair, and 
formed by the same Almighty Parent. 2. They are possessed 
of the same bodily organization, and the same moral and intel- 
lectual powers. 3. They are subject to the same wants and 
afflictions, and susceptible of the same pleasures and enjoyments. 
4. They inhabit the same world, and breathe the same atmo- 
sphere. 5. They are dependent upon each other for their com- 
forts, and connected by numerous ties and relations. 6. To all 
of them God distributes his bounty, without respect of persons, 
causing his sun to cheer and enlighten them, and his rains to 
descend and fructify their fields. 7. They are all animated with 
immortal spirits, and destined to an eternal existence. 8. The 
exercise of kindness and afibction would unite, in one harmonious 



I 



SOURCES OF ERROR IN REASONING. 267 

society, men of all nations, and diffuse happiness through the 
heart of every human being. 9. It would promote the universal 
practice of equity and justice between man and man, and pre- 
vent all those litigations, contentions, and animosities, which have 
so long disturbed and demoralized the world. 10. It would 
*' turn wars into peace to the ends of the earth," and promote a 
delightful intercourse between all the kindreds and tribes of 
human beings, wherever dispersed over the surface of the 
globe, &e. 

In prescribing such exercises as the above, the teacher would 
require, in the first instance, to suggest some of the leading argu- 
ments, in order that the pupils may perceive the nature of the 
mental process in which they are called to engage ; and when 
they had leisure to think on the subject, some of them would 
doubtless bring forward some proofs or considerations of their 
own, though perhaps expressed in homely language. At any 
rate, an exercise of this kind, prescribed once or twice every week, 
could scarcely fail to sharpen the faculties of the young, to induce 
habits of rational thinking, and to promote both their moral and 
intellectual improvement. 

It would likewise be of considerable utility to set before them 
the springs of false judgment, or the sources of error — the false 
conclusions which arise from prejudices, or preconceived opinions 
— the nature of sophistical reasonings, and the means of guard- 
ing against their influence. The following are specimens of the 
prejudices to which I allude: — 1. We are apt to judge of per- 
sons or things merely from their external appearance. A pic- 
ture of no value, daubed with bright and glaring colours, is fre- 
quently admired by the vulgar eye ; and a worthless book, splen- 
didly printed and adorned with flashy engravings and elegant 
binding, is prized and extolled by a superficial thinker. From 
such a prejudice we are apt to conclude that a man is happy who 
is encircled with wealth and splendour, and that he who is covered 
with coarse or ragged garments has neither knowledge nor com- 
fort, and is unworthy of our regard. Hence the Jews rejected 
the Saviour of the world, and the Corinthians despised the Apostle 
Paul. — 2. Another prejudice arises from not viewing an object on 
all sides — not considering all the circumstances connected iciih 
it, and not comparing all the aspects in which it may be con- 
templated. Thus, when we view a cone placed at a great dis- 
tance from the eye, we are apt to imagine it a plain triangle ; 
and if its base were placed at right angles to the line of vision, 
we should conclude that it was nothing else but a plain circle. 
Thus, a roqnd plate, when placed obliquely at a considerable dis- 



268 SOURCES OF ERROR IN REASONING. 

tance from the eye, appears as an oval; and with its edge turned 
towards us, as a line. Thus, the sun and moon, though globu- 
lar bodies, appear Jl.at to the naked eye. Thus, the rings of 
Saturn appear sometimes like narrow, and sometimes like broad 
ellipses, sometimes like straight lines, and sometimes like a nar- 
row shade ; so that a comparison of all these different aspects 
was necessary before it could be inferred that these singular phe- 
nomena were in reality rings. Hence, at their first discovery by 
the telescope, they were considered as two small globes attached 
to the planet. — 3. Another source of error arises from the impres- 
sions made on the mind in infancy, and from not comparing the 
intimations given by one sense with those of another. Children 
are apt to imagine that books are unpleasant things, and that 
learning and religion are drudgeries, when they have been driven 
to such tasks by the force of the scourge. They imagine the 
sky touches the distant hills, and that the stars are not risen till 
the sun be set. From this source we are apt to conclude that the 
air has no weight, because we do not feel its pressure ; that the 
earth is at rest, because we do not feel its motion ; that the planets 
and stars are only a i^ew miles distant ; and that a vessel at anchor 
is in motion when we pass her swiftly, when sailing in a steam- 
boat. — 4. Our disposition to account for every thing on one or 
two principles. To this cause may be ascribed the disposition 
of some late philosophers to account for almost every phenome- 
non on the principle of electricity. Having traced its agency in 
producing thunder and lightning, they went so far as to attribute 
to its sole operation the phenomena of earthquakes, volcanoes, 
winds, rain, and even the various fluctuations of the animal spirits. 
To form a world, Epicurus required only a mass of hooked atoms 
moving in a certain manner ; and Des Cartes, from observing 
that light bodies were moved round in a whirlwind, formed the 
idea of an immense vortex, or whirlpool in the heavens, to 
account for the motion of the planets round the sun. 

5. The passions and affections lead to numerous sources of 
error. Love induces a mother to think her own child the fairest 
and the best. Intense hope and desire make a few days as long 
as so many weeks. The fear of the torture, of the galleys, or 
of a painful death, has induced multitudes to believe the grossest 
absurdities of the Romish church. Envy misrepresents the con- 
dition and character of our neighbour, and makes us believe that 
he is much worse than he really is. Above all, self-interest 
induces many to swallow almost any opinion, and to vindicate 
every practice, however corrupt and absurd. Hence the most 
glaring abuses in church and state have been vindicated, in the 



FALSE REASONING. 269 

most barefaced manner, by tbose who derive their emoluments 
from a system of corruption. It is from a spirit of selfishness, 
too, that we set up our own opinions in religion and philosophy 
as the tests of orthodoxy and truth ; and from the same principle 
has arisen the antichristian practice of persecution — a practice as 
unreasonable as that of the tyrant, who, having a bed exactly 
fitted to his own size, stretched men of low stature on the rack 
till they were drawn out to the length of his bed, and cut a por- 
tion of the legs off any one whom he found too long for it. Who 
ever had recourse to violence and torture to prove the truths of 
geometry ? — 6. Our disposition to rely on the authority of others. 
We are apt, without sufficient inquiry, to rely on every thing we 
have been taught by our parents and teachers. An author of 
great respectability frequently drags thousands into mistakes and 
erroneous theories, merely by the splendour and authority of his 
name. For more than a thousand years the philosophers and 
divines of Europe were led into many egregious errors by a reli- 
ance on the authority of Aristotle ; a quotation from his writings 
was considered as a proof of any position, and useful discoveries 
were long rejected because they did not quadrate with the opi- 
nions of the Grecian philosopher. Luther, Calvin, and Knox 
were pious men and eminent reformers, and their pecuhar opinions 
are not unfrequently imbibed by their followers, merely on the 
authority of their names. This is an error into which those are 
apt to fall who never apply their powers to rational investigations, 
and who are too indolent to think for themselves. 

The above and similar sources of error might be illustrated to 
the young by numerous examples and circumstances ; and rules 
and cautions given by which they might be enabled to guard 
against their pernicious influence in the sciences, in religion, in 
politics, and in the ordinary affairs of life. A brief view might 
likewise be given of the doctrine of Sophisms, and the means by 
which they may be detected ; of which the following are specie 
mens : — 1. Accounting for a phenomenon or fact by assigning 
a false cause, or taking an accidental conjunction of things for 
a necessary connection. We fall into this error, when from an 
accident we infer a property, when from an example we infer a 
rule, when from a single act we infer a habit. Astrologers commit 
this error when they deduce the cause of the various events in the 
lives of men from the different aspects of the stars and planets. 
We reason on this sophism when we construe the appearance of 
a comet or an eclipse of the sun as predicting the fate of princes, 
the revolution of nations, or the infliction of pestilence or famine j 
or when it rains at the new or full moon, and we infer that tjie 

23* 



270 IMPORTANCE OP JUST REASONING. 

moon is the cause of it ; or when a person is in misery or dis- 
tress, and we conclude that he must needs be a heinous sinner. 
— 2. When we draw a conclusion from a premise which is only 
true by accident. We fall into this error when we reason against 
any thing because of the wrong use which has been made of it ; 
as when we reason against printing, because it has sometimes 
bf'^n employed for raising sedition and promoting immorality ; 
against reading the Bible because it has sometimes led to heresy ; 
against Christianity, because it has been the accidental occasion 
of contentions and persecutions, which do not flow from the Gos- 
pel, but are mere accidental circumstances^ with which it has 
been sometimes attended. Other sophisms are such as the fol- 
lowing : Mistaking the question or point to be proved — ^the Peti- 
tio Principii, or begging the question — imperfect enumeration — 
reasoning in a circle — concluding from what is true of a thing in 
its divided state, as if it were true in its compound state — ambigu- 
ity of words, and using them in different senses — with several 
others. 

Of all the species of false reasonings, there is none more com- 
mon than that of introducing into an argument propositions that 
are either false or doubtful, or taking for granted facts which have 
never been satisfactorily ascertained. In this way a false conclu- 
sion may be legitimately deduced, after such facts or propositions 
are admitted. Against this fallacious mode of reasoning the young 
should be carefully guarded, both in their own reasonings, and 
when listening to those of others ; and habituated to scan every 
proposition or assertion, and ascertain its truth before admitting it 
into any chain of argument. In the speeches that were lately de- 
livered in parliament in opposition to the Reform Bill, this species 
of reasoning was one distinguishing characteristic, when those 
orations had any show of argument. Fictions were brought for- 
ward as facts, vague and unfounded assertions were uttei-ed with 
all the pomp of confidence and authority, and the idea of revolu- 
tion, in its most horrid aspects, was substituted in place of salu- 
tary reformation, so that the haranguer would have required to 
have been stopped at almost every other sentence, till he had sub- 
stantiated the truth of his premises. Such, however, is not unfre- 
quently the way in which our representatives in parliament, the 
members of our corporations, and vast assemblages of our citizens 
at public meetings, are hurried along by a bold and impudent de- 
claimer, and induced to cheer the sophister who is leading them 
on to the admission of a falsehood, and to the approbation of mea- 
sures subversive of human improvement. 

it is therefore of vast importance to society, that the young be 



ARGUMENTS OF WARRIORS AND PERSECUTORS. 271 

early trained to the proper use of their rational faculties — that 
they be accustomed to entertain clear and well-defined ideas on 
every subject — that they be enabled to appreciate the strength or 
weakness of arguments — that they feel the importance of prose- 
cuting truth and duty in every department of learning — and that 
frequent exercises on important subjects be prescribed for stimu- 
lating their reasoning powers. It is lamentable to reflect on tiie 
deficiency and weakness of the great mass of mankind in this 
respect. On the most trifling grounds they will yield their asseni 
to hundreds of propositions, most of which they do not understand. 
They will obstinately adhere to their preconceived opinions in the 
face of the strongest and most convincing arguments. They will 
swallow, without the least hesitation, the most absurd and extrava- 
gant notions ; while all the reasonings we can bring forward will 
not convince them of the reality of truths and facts which have 
been clearly demonstrated. So wedded are they to the opinions 
they had first imbibed, that we might almost as soon attempt to 
teach a snail or a tortoise the truths of geometry as convince them 
that the earth turns round its axis, and that it is possible to deter- 
mine the exact distance of the moon ; while, at the same time, 
they will talk, with the utmost assurance, of the most abstruse 
mysteries which lie beyond the reach of the human understand- 
ing. This representation does not apply merely to the lower, 
but even to many in the higher ranks of society ; and such a state 
of things has been productive of many injurious effects, in relation 
to the best interests of mankind. It has been the cause of most 
of the wars and commotions which have desolated the earth, and 
of the prevalence of those systems of tyranny, slavery, and injus- 
tice, which still so generally prevail. It has led to all the perse- 
cutions that have ever disgraced the church or the world. It has 
produced hundreds of foolish controversies in the visible church, 
either with respect to comparatively trifling opinions, or to those 
subjects which lie beyond the grasp of the faculties of man ; and 
has dissevered Christian society into a number of discordant sec- 
taries. It has prevented the improvement and happiness of the 
human race, and is the cause of all the ignorance, prejudices, 
intemperance, and vice, which appear among all ranks of society ; 
for if men were to cultivate their intellectual powers aright, and 
apply them to rational purposes, few or none of these evils would 
abound in the world. 

But it is deeply to be regretted, that in all ages, and even in 
the present age, legitimate reasoning has been for the most part 
thrown aside, and diabolical arguments substituted in its stead. 
When men have been unable to confute their antagonists by the 



272 ARGUMENTS OF WARRIORS AND PERSECUTORS. jSBki 

force of arguments, they have had recourse to " club law," ana 
have knocked down their opponents and all their reasonings, by 
the appHcation of guns and bayonets, and every species of jp/iJ/si^^a^ 
force. Louis XIV. of France, like most of his compeers, was 
so convinced of the strength of this mode of reasoning, that he 
engraved upon his great guns the following inscription : " Ratio 
ultima Regum,^^ that is, the. Logic of princes — or, the last ar- 
gument of kings. In this mode of arguing, tifty thousand disputers 
are frequently arranged on each side of a question, and that party 
which can handle their swords and muskets with most dexterity, 
and blow the skulls and limbs of their antagonists to atoms, and 
slash their bodies to pieces, are always reckoned, by their leaders, 
the most expert logicians. There is another mode of reasoning 
which has been frequently used with disputants, and that is, argu- 
ing by torture, in which the argument is sometimes screwed up 
to such a pitch as to make the refractory disputant confess his 
belief in any proposition, however wild and extravagant. A mode 
of arguing nearly akin to this is the application of whips, sabres, 
gibbets, dungeons, musket-balls, fire and fagots. In this way 
the Romish Church reasoned with the Hussites and the Walden- 
ses; and with the same weapons confuted every Protestant who 
dared to call in question the infallibility and the supreme authority 
of the Roman Pontiff. In this way Queen Mary and her bishops 
aro-ucd with 277 clergymen, gen'ilcmen, tradesmen, and women, 
when, for adhering to Protestant doctrines, they were delivered 
over to be devoured by the fires of Smithficld. It was in the 
same way that Clavcrhouse and his "bloody bands" reasoned 
with the Scottish Covenanters, when he hunted them across moors 
and mosses, and massacred them in cold blood ; and that the Star 
Chamber reasoned with the Non-conformists of England, when 
all their arguments were confuted by fines, racks, and imprison- 
ment. It is in this way that Nicholas of Russia has argued with 
the brave Poles, when vindicating their liberties — when he sent 
them chained, like wild boasts, to wander along frightful deserts, 
and to perish in the forests of Siberia ; and in the same way do 
all mobs reason, when they furiously demolish the houses, the 
manufactories, or the churches of their opponents. On the same 
principles do those men reason, who deprive their fcllow-citlzons 
of the right of being eligible to certain civil offices, and attempt 
to degrade them in the eyes of the public, because they nobly 
assume the right to think for themselves, and to wor.'^hip God ac- 
cording to their consciences. — But, of all the arguments which 
have been tried, to produce conviction, there is none more power- 
ful than the induencc of gold. This is an argument of so much 



NATURAL THEOLOGY. 273 

force and efficacy, that none but a few stubborn minds have been 
capable of resisting it. It is possessed of the most wonderful 
properties — in a moment it enlightens the understanding, wins 
tlie affections, removes every doubt, silences every objection, clears 
up every difficulty, banishes every scruple, and generally causes 
the most sturdy logician to give up his point, and bend to its 
power. In short, it is an intermediate idea, or major proposition, 
which will lead to almost any conclusion. By this argument the 
wisdom of the wise, and the understanding of the prudent, have 
been more quickly and effectually refuted than by all the wisdom 
of Solomon, or by all the reasonings of philosophy ; and its power- 
ful effects are to be seen in our own land, and in every nation 
under heaven. 

Such have been the modes of reasoning which* have most 
generally prevailed in the world. O ! foolish and infatuated rea- 
soners ! Is it not high time to undermine your logical principles 
and systems, to build on a new foundation, and to train the rising 
generation in such a manner, that they may employ their mental 
powers in accordance with the dictates of reason and the word 
of God? 

Section XIII. — Natural Theology. 

Natural Theology is that branch of knowledge which proves 
and illustrates the attributes of the Deity from the works of na- 
ture — a study which is open to all the inhabitants of the earth, 
and from which they .may derive impressive views of the exist- 
ence, the perfections, and the incessant agency of that Great 
Being who made and who governs the universe. " For, the in- 
visible things of God, even His eternal Power and Divinity, are, 
when duly attended to, clearly seen by the things that are made," 
and have been so in all ages, " from the creation of the world ;" 
so that, " even the heathen nations are without excuse," if they 
neglect to trace in those works the being and attributes of their 
Creator, and refuse that tribute of reverence and obedience which 
is due to His perfections. This is a study in which the young 
should be early initiated. It lies at the foundation of the religion 
of the Bible ; for the inspired writers take for granted that we 
know the evidences of the existence of the Divine Being, and of 
some of the attributes with which he is invested, and direct us to 
the contemplation of the works of his hands, as proofs and illus- 
'trations of the truths they unfold. " Lift up thine eyes on high, 
and behold Him who hath created these orbs: stand still, and 
consider the wondrous works of God. Great is the Lord, and 
of great power ; His understanding is infinite. His works are 



274 SUBJECTS OF NATURAL THEOLOGY. 

manifold, and in wisdom He hath made them all." In exhibiting 
the works of God to the young, in performing experiments to 
illustrate their properties, and in describing the laws and mechan- 
ism of the material world, every opportunity should be taken of 
directing them to the displays of power, benevolence, wisdom, 
and intelligence, which these works exhibit. It should be deeply 
impressed upon their minds, that it is tl>e highest and noblest end 
of science, to mark the evidences of wise and benevolent design, 
and to trace the incessant agency of our Creator in all our sur- 
veys and investigations of the works of creation — without an at- 
tention to which, the mere knowledge of natural facts is an acqui- 
sition of a comparatively trivial nature. 

An intelligent teacher can seldom be at a loss to direct the at- 
tention of his pupils to this subject ; for there is no part of the 
scenery of nature in which a discerning eye will not perceive the 
most evident traces of benevolent design and infinite intelligence, 
not only in the exquisite mechanism of animated beings, but in 
the structure of vegetables and minerals, and the general arrange- 
ment of the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere. The adapta- 
tion of the solid parts of the globe for the habitation of man and 
other terrestrial animals — the adaptation of the waters of the 
ocean and of the rivers to the purposes of commerce, and for the 
abode of countless multitudes of organized beings — the colouring 
thrown over the canopy of heaven, and over the landscape of the 
earth — the process of evaporation, and the innumerable benefits 
it confers — the agency of the atmosphere, the wonderful proper- 
ties of its component parts, and its extensive influence in the ani- 
mal and vegetable kingdoms — the solar light, and the infinity of 
beautiful effects it produces — the thousands of diversified objects 
which delight the eve in the natural embellishments of creation — 
the harmony and order, the grandeur and sublimity, of the celes- 
tial motions — the arrangements of the planetary system, and the 
provision made for securing its perpetuity — the relation of man to 
the agencies of external nature, as the action of water, air, light, 
heat, electricity, &c. — the proportion between the body of man, 
and the objects and living beings around him — the mutual rela- 
tions which subsist between animals and vegetables, and their 
co-operation in promoting the same design — the adaptation of 
almost every vegetable to the support of some species of animals 
— the power of vegetables to reproduce and continue their species, 
and the variety of admirable means by which it is etfected — the* 
various methods employed to disperse the seeds of plants over the 
surface of the globe, and to adorn it with vegetable beauties — the 
adaptation of plants to the different climates, and to the necessities of 



BOOKS ON NATURAL THEOLOGY. 275 

their respective inhabitants — the adnriirable structure of their seeds, 
roots, leaves, and sap-vessels, particularly as discovered by the 
microscope in transverse sections of plants, &c — their important 
uses in the system of nature, and the numerous beauties and va- 
rieties which they spread over the face of our terrestrial crea- 
tion ; particularly, the curious and admirable mechanism displayed 
in the construction of animated beings, from the microscopic ani- 
malcula, ten hundred thousand times less than a visible point, to 
the elephant and the whale — the organs of mastication, degluti- 
tion, digestion, and secretion, all ditterently contrived, according 
to the structure of the animal and the aliments on which it feeds 
— the eyes of insects, and the thousands of transparent globules 
of which they consist — the metamorphoses of caterpillars and 
other insects, and the peculiar organization adapted to each state 
of their existence — the numerous beauties and minute adaptations 
in the wings, feet, probosces, and feathers, of gnats and other in- 
sects — the respiratory apparatus of fishes, and the nice adaptation 
of their bodies to the watery fluid in which they pass their exist- 
ence — the construction of birds, their pointed bills to penetrate 
the air, their flexible tails serving as rudders, the lightness, 
strength, and tenacity of their feathers, and the whole structure 
of their bodies adapted to the air in which they fly, and the food 
by which they are sustained — above all, the wonders of the hu- 
man frame, the numerous parts of which it is composed, the hun- 
dreds of bones and muscles, the thousands of veins, arteries, 
glands, nerves, and lymphatics, the millions of scales and pores 
in the skin, the heart with its ventricles and auricles, the brain 
with its infinity of fibres, the lungs with their millions of vesicles, 
the organs of sense, with their multifarious adaptations and con- 
nections, and the harmonious movements, adjustments, and adap- 
tations of all these parts to the system of external nature and to 
the promotion of the happiness of man, — these, and thousands 
of similar objects, adaptations, and contrivances, will afford am- 
ple scope for expatiating on the Power, Wisdom, and Intelligence, 
of the Almighty Creator, and on the Benevolent contrivances 
which appear throughout every part of the universal system ; and 
were specimens of some of the objects now alluded to exhibited 
to the young, it could not fail of arresting their attention, and in- 
spiring them with admiration of the wonderful works of God. 

We have comparatively few books on this subject. Derham's 
" Physico-Theology," Ray's " Wisdom of God in the Creation," 
Nieuwentyt's " Religious Philosopher," Paley's " Natural Theo- 
logy," Lessor's " Insecto-Theology," and several other works, 
contain a number of valuable fragments illustrative of the being 



276 VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OP INSTRUCTION. 

and perfections of God from the works of Nature. But we have 
no complete or comprehensive system of Natural Theology ; and 
the works now alluded to, however valuable and worthy of being 
perused, are not adapted to the capacities of the young. We 
require a comprehensive compend on this subject, for the use of 
schools, in which the descriptions and reflections should be as 
much as possible divested of the technicalities of science, and 
which should be illustrated with numerous engravino;s. The best 
treatise of this kind I have yet seen, is " The Youth's Book of 
Natural Theology," by the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, lately publish- 
ed at Hartford, Connecticut. This work is clear and explicit in 
its descriptions, and, for the most part, level to the comprehen- 
sion of the juvenile mind. But its illustrations are chiefly con- 
fined to the human body and the parts and functions of animals. 
It is thrown into the form of Dialogues, which has a tendency to 
render it interesting for the private perusal of the young ; but a 
work on this plan is not so well adapted to serve the purpose of 
a text-book for public seminaries.* By means of instructions on 
this subject, the young would be prepared for the study of 
Christian Theology, and would be qualified to appreciate the 
beauty and sublimity of those descriptions, given by the inspired 
writers, of the agency of God in the economy of nature. 

Having enlarged to a greater extent than I originally intended 
on the preceding departments of knowledge, I shall do little more 
than barely mention several other branches v>'hich should occa- 
sionally form the subject of instruction in all our schools. These 
are such as the following : — Natural History, including not only 
a description of animals, but likewise of the most interesting facts 
connected with the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere ; such 
as earthquakes, volcanoes, ice-islands, caverns, cataracts, natural 
bridges, glaciers, boiling springs, the phenomena of thunder, 
lightning, aurora-borealis, parhelia, luminous arches, fiery me- 
teors, whirlwinds, water-spouts, &c. The objects connected with 
natural history should be among the first that are presented to 
the view of the young, and they should be introduced as subjects 
of attention throughout every period of their subsequent education, 
as they form the groundwork of our physical knowledge and in- 
vestigations. — Botany is another pleasing subject on which 
sketches might be occasionally given, and which might bo illus- 

* The reader is respectfully referred, for some illustrations of this subject, 
to " The Christian Philosopher," particularly to Chapters i, ii, and iv, and 
to the author's volume " On the Improvement of Society," &c. Section vi, 
" On the Influence of Knowledge in promoting Enlarged Conceptions of the 
Attributes of the Deity." 



VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCTION. 277 

trated by the shrubs and flowers connected with the garden be- 
longing to the seminary, formerly described. Microscopic views 
of the seeds and farina of flowers, the vessels and ramifications 
of the small leaves of minute plants and flowers, the prickles on 
the leaves of nettles and other shrubs, transverse sections of 
plants, displaying the beautiful arrangement of the sap-vessels, 
and similar objects, should be exhibited, and the attention directed 
to the fine polishmgs, the numerous minute vessels compressed 
into the smallest space, and tl;' other exquisite pieces of Divine 
workmanship connected with tne process of vegetation. — Mine- 
ralogy is another department of nature, on which a few instruc- 
tions might be giv^en, wherever there are specimens to illustrate 
the descriptions. But descriptions of metals or minerals, without 
presenting to view the metallic substances described, will be of 
little avail. — Sketches of Political Economy, illustrating the 
principles of commerce and manufactures, and other topics con- 
nected v/ith this subject, might be given to the advanced pupils, 
as soon as they are able to enter into the spirit of such disquisi- 
tions. In such sketches, noble and liberal views should be incul- 
cated ; the selfishness and antipathies of nations, and the incon- 
veniences and absurdities of those restrictions which one nation 
imposes upon another, should be strongly reprobated ; and a spirit 
of good-will and generosity enforced towards other nations and 
communities, considered as members of the same great family to 
which we all belong. In connection with this subject, they should 
be taught something of the civil and criminal laws of their coun- 
try, of the duties of magistrates, and of their own duties as sub- 
jects ; of the form of government under which they live, and of 
their social rights and privileges. Of no less importance to all 
classes, particularly to the lower, are instructions on Domestic 
Economy — including directions and rules respecting orderliness 
and cleanliness in dwellings — the best modes of cooking victuals 
— the proper nursing and management of children — the rearing 
and treatment of domestic animals — the economy of bees — the 
cultivation of gardens, and the best mode of rearing culinary 
vegetables — the decoration of their houses, areas, and flower- 
plots, and whatever else has a tendency to promote health and 
comfort, especially among the working classes of society. In 
shortj instructions in Vocal Music should be occasionally inter- 
spersed with the other scholastic exercises, and church tunes and 
airs, adapted to some beautiful or sublime pieces of poetry, might 
be sung, at convenient seasons, in unison, by all the pupils. The 
words adapted to the different airs should be calculated to convey 
instruction, and to raise the soul to some interestinsj or sublime 

24 



278 BODILY EXERCISES. *" 

objects. All such vulgar and debasing ideas as are generally inter- 
woven in our popular songs, and which are little else than a com- 
pound of sensuality and selfishness, should be carefully discarded. 
A good organ or other musical instrument might be used for 
leading the vocal strains. Music, both vocal and instrumental, 
has long been too frequently prostituted to the most worthless 
purposes ; it is now high time that it should be consecrated to 
moral objects, and to the celebration of the perfections and the 
works of the Most High. 

In addition to the mental exercises now alluded to, pupils of 
every description should be daily employed in bodily exercises, 
for invigorating their health and corporeal powers. Every school 
should have a play-ground for this purpose, as extensive as pos- 
sible, and furnished with gymnastic apparatus for exercising the 
muscular activities of the young of both sexes. Swings, poles, 
hoops, see-saws, pulleys, balls, and similar articles, should be 
furnished for enabling them to engage with spirit and vigour in 
their amusements. In walking, running, skipping, leaping in 
height, length, or depth, swinging, lifting, carrying, jumping 
with a hoop or a pole, they will not only find sources of enjoy- 
ment — when these exercises are properly regulated to prevent 
danger and contention, — but will also strengthen and develop 
their corporeal energies, and invigorate their mental powers. All 
imitations, however, of war and military manoeuvres should be 
generally prohibited ; as it is now more than time that a martial 
spirit should be counteracted, and checked in the very bud, — and 
those who encourage it in the young need not wonder if they 
shall, ere long, behold many of them rising up to be curses in- 
stead of benefactors to mankind. — They might, likewise, be oc- 
casionally employed in making excursions, in company with their 
teacher, either along the sea-shore, the banks of a river, or to the 
top of a hill, for the purpose of surveying the scenes of nature 
or art, and searching for minerals, plants, flowers, or insects, toil! 
augment the school museum, and to serve as subjects for instruc- 
tion. If every school had a piece of ground attached to it for a 
garden, and for the cultivation of fruit-trees, potatoes, cabbages, 
and other culinary vegetables, children of both sexes, at certain 
hours, might be set to dig, to hoe, to prune, to plant, to sow, to 
arrange the beds of flowers, and to keep every portion of the plot 
in neatness and order. Such exercises would not only be health- 
ful and exhilarating, but might be of great utility to them in after 
life, when they come to have the sole management of their do- 
mestic affairs. They might also be encouraged to employ some 
of their leisure hours in the construction of such mechaincal con- 



FEMALE EDUCATION. 279 

trivances and devices as are most congenial to their taste. If, 
instead of six or seven hours' confinement in school, only five 
hours at most were devoted to books, and the remaining hours to 
such exercises as above mentioned, their progress in practical 
knowledge, so far from being impeded, might be promoted to a 
much greater extent. Such exercises might be turned, not only 
to their physical and intellectual advantage, but to their moral 
improvement. When young people are engaged in their diver- 
sions, or in excursions along with their teacher, their peculiar 
tastes, tempers, and conduct towards each other are openly de- 
veloped ; they act without restraint, they appear in their true 
colours, and a teacher has the best opportunity of marking the 
dispositions they display. He can therefore apply, at the moment, 
those encouragements and admonitions, and those Christian rules 
and maxims, by which their characters and conduct may be 
moulded into the image of Him " who hath set us an example, 
that we should walk in his steps." The incidents and the at- 
mospherical phenomena which may occur on such occasions, will 
also supply materials for rational observations and reflections, 
and for directing the train of their affections, and the exercise of 
their moral powers ; and no opportunity of this kind, for pro- 
ducing useful impressions upon the young, should be lost by a 
pious and intelligent instructor. 

Thus I have endeavoured, in the preceding pages, to exhibit an 
outline of some of those branches of knowledge, in which every 
individual of the human race — the female sex as well as the male 
— should receive a certain portion of instruction. Hitherto the 
female sex have been sadly neglected ; their education, where 
they have not been altogether overlooked, has been more showy 
than substantial ; and they have been generally treated as if they 
were not possessed of the mental powers requisite for acquiring 
all the useful branches of science. Without entering into the 
question. Whether the female character possesses the same deo-ree 
of intellectual energy as that of the other sex ? it may be affirmed, 
without the least hesitation, that, when their education is properly 
directed, they are capable of acquiring every branch of know- 
ledge which can improve or adorn the human mind. We have 
numerous examples to corroborate this position. It is sufficient 
to mention the names of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Aitken, Miss Edge- 
worth, Mrs. Wakefield, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. More, Mrs. Marcet, 
Miss Taylor, Miss Landon, Mrs. Somerville, Mrs. Willard, Mrs. 
Phelps, &c. which are only specimens of many others, most of 
whom are still alive and actively employed, both in Britain and 
America, in instructing their own sex and society at large, and 



280 FEMALE EDUCATION. 

in promoting the interests of general knowledge. The female 
sex possess essentially the same intellectual faculties as the male, 
whatever may be said as to the degrees of vigour in which the 
primitive powers exist. But even in respect to the degree of 
acuteness and energy of the female intellect, we have examples 
of individuals who, without the advantage of an academical edu- 
cation, have explored the system of the universe, composed com- 
mentaries on the Newtonian philosophy, and prosecuted the most 
abstruse mathematical investigations ; and I have no hesitation 
in asserting, that academical honours should be conferred on such 
accomplished females, no less than on the other sex who have 
enjoyed more opportunities of improvement.* Females have 
more in their power than the other sex in forming the tastes and 
dispositions of the j^oung, and in giving them those impressions 
in early life which may be either beneficial or injurious to society. 
They are the more immediate guar/dians and instructors of the 
rising generation during the first stage of their existence, and 
upon the discretion and intelligence they display in superintend- 
ing the evolution of the youthful mind, will, in a great measure, 
depend the intelligence and the moral order of the social state to 
which they belong. Their influence is powerful, not only on the 
tastes and manners of society, but on the moral principles and 
characters of mankind. Besides, they are beings destined for 
immortalit}^ and equally interested as the other sex in all that is 
awful or glorious in the revelations of Heaven ; and therefore 
ought to have their minds enlightened in every branch of know- 
ledge which may have a beneficial influence on their present con- 
duct and their future destiny. Till inore attention is paid to the 
cultivation of the female mind, among all ranks, society cannot 
be expected to make an accelerated progress in the course of 
moral and intellectual improvement. 

In specifying the preceding branches of knowledge as subjects 
in which all classes of the young should be instructed, I do not 
mean to insinuate, that, in the first stage of their education, such 
subjects are to be studied in regular courses, as in academies and 
universities, though at a future period this plan may be adopted. 

* Mrs. Somerviile has lately been elected member of the Literary and 
Philosophical Society of Geneva, the first time an honour of the kind v^'as 
ever conferred a female. An American paper states, whether truly or not 
I cannot determine, that "The Legislature of Indiana have chartered a 
college, to be called The Christian College, in w^hich degrees are to be con- 
ferred on both males and females. There are to be degrees of Bo dress of 
Natural Science, of English Ijiterature, or Belles Lettres, of Fine Arts, and 
of Arts and Sciences." However ludicrous this may appear to some, I can 
see no impropriety in following out such an idea. 



PREVAILING' ERRORS AND MISCONCEPTIONS. 281 

While they are learning English reading, connposition, writing, 
arithmetic, and other branches, illustrations may be given of the 
more interesting and popular parts of the physical sciences, — 
which will tend to give them a i-elish for such subjects, and to 
prepare them for entering on the more particular study of such 
branches of knowledge, at a period when their faculties are more 
matured. Nor ought it to be objected, that, in this way, young 
persons would only receive a smattering of learning, which would 
pufF them up with vanity, and do them more harm than good. 
If every portion of knowledge communicated to them, however 
detached and insulated, be clearly explained and illustrated, and 
thoroughly understood, it must necessarily be useful, either in 
expanding their views, or in its practical applications. For ex- 
ample, if, by certain pneumatical and hydrostatical experiments, 
they are made to perceive clear proofs of the atmospheric pres- 
sure, and its operation in the case of syphons — if they are made 
to see, by similar experiments, that, on this principle, water may 
be conveyed either over a rising ground, or along a valley to an 
opposite hill, — this single fact, clearly understood, might be of 
considerable use to them on many occasions, even although they 
were unacquainted with all the other principles and facts con- 
nected with pneumatical science. The great object to be attended 
to is, to convey, on every subject, a clear and well-defined idea 
to the young, and to guide them to the practical application of 
knowledge. 

There is a line of Mr. Pope which has been hackneyed about 
for a century past, which is in every body's mouth, and which 
is generally misapplied, when an allusion is made to this sub- 
ject— 

"A little learninff is a danfferous thiLc^." 

— ore; ,j^ 

1 ^ 

How such a sentiment came to be almost universally quoted anot' 
admired, I am at a loss to divine. It is a proposition which can- 
not be supported by any mode of reasoning with which I am ac- 
quainted, and is itself " a dangerous thing," if by learning is un- 
derstood the acquisition of any portion of useful knowledge. 
Every one must acquire " a little " portion of knowledge, or 
learning, before he can acquire a larger share. A child must 
acquire the knowledge of the letters and elementary sounds, be- 
fore he can read any language with fluency — and must form 
some idea of the objects immediately around him, before he can 
acquire an accurate conception of the subjects and scenes con- 
nected with geography. If the proposition be true, that " a little 
learning is dangerous," then it should follow, that a very great 

24* 



282 REASONS FOR UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION. 

portion of learning, or knowledge, must be much more danger- 
ous. If it be dangerous for a boy to know that the earth is 
25,000 miles in circumference, and to be able to prove that it is 
round like a globe, then Newton and Bacon must have been ex- 
tremely dangerous individuals, whose knowledge extended to an 
almost unHmited range. If a little learning is dangerous, then ab- 
solute ignorance and destitution of all ideas must be the safest and 
the happiest slate of human beings. But how can even " a little " 
knowledge be dangerous? Suppose a young person to have read 
only the Gospel of Luke, and to have acquired a knowledge of 
all the facts it records — would he be less happy in himself, or more 
dangerous to society, on this account, because he had little ac- 
quaintance with the other portions of Scripture? or, would he have 
been better to have read nothing at all ? Or, suppose he had been 
instructed in the fact, that foul air of a deadly nature, is fre- 
quently to be found at the bottom of old wells, and that it is re- 
quisite to send down a lighted candle to determine this point be- 
fore a person attempts to descend into such places, — would the 
knowledge of such circumstances be dangerous to him, because 
he is not acquainted with the properties of all the other gases, or 
with the whole system of chemistry ? Would an acquaintance 
with a portion of geography, suppose the States of Europe, be 
dangerous to any one, because he had not minutely studied all the 
other quarters of the globe? or would a knowledge of hydro- 
statics be useless, because he was unacquainted with several other 
branches of natural philosophy? Such conclusions are obviously 
absurd, and therefore the proposition under consideration is abso- 
lutely untenable. The persons who most frequently reiterate 
this sentiment are those who nre opposed to the universal educa- 
tion of the lower '^-^iYfeC'and to the general diffusion of know- 
ledge. J- ^Xio\v no class of men to which such a sentiment will 
^j/i^^'exccpt, perhaps, to a few 'pedants who have got a smatter- 
ing of Greek and Latin at a grammar school or a college, with- 
out any other substantial acquirement, and who pique themselves 
on this account, as if they were elevated in point of knowledge 
far above the vuli^ar throno:. 

But althouoh I have admitted, that, during; the first stage of 
instruction, only a few fragments of knowledge would be commu- 
nicated, yet before the course is finished, a very considerable por- 
tion of all that is really useful in the sciences might be imparted, 
to the young. Suppose that, on an average, every child is able 
to read with tolerable fluency by the time he is arrived at the age 
of seven or eight, and that the course of instruction for every 



REASONS FOR UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION. 283 

member of the community shall be prolonged till he arrive at the 
period of fourteen years — in the course of six or seven years, a 
summary view of all the more interesting principles and facts con- 
nected with the sciences above specified, might be communicated, 
even supposing that half a year were exclusively devoted to each. 
But there would be no necessity for restricting the pupil to one 
branch of knowledge at a time. While, at one hour, he was re- 
ceiving instructions and witnessing experiments in natural philo- 
sophy or chemistry, during other hours of the day he might be 
prosecuting arithmetic, algebra, geometry, or composition. Thus, 
during little more than the time usually spent in acquiring a 
knowledge of Latin and Greek, a very considerable portion of 
useful knowledge might be acquired, which would expand the 
range of the juvenile mind, increase its sources of enjoyment, and 
lay a broad foundation for future usefulness and improvement. 
And I trust there are few, in modern times, who will hesitate to 
admit, that the knowledge thus acquired would be infinitely pre- 
ferable, in point of utility, to all the scraps of classical literature 
usually picked up, during the same period, at our grammar 
schools. — But why, it may be asked, s-hould such an extent of 
knowledge be communicated to the loicer oi^ders of mankind 1 I 
answer, in a few words. Because they are rational beings, fur- 
nished by their Creator with faculties capable of acquiring it; be- 
cause it will increase their enjoyments and render them more 
useful in society; because it will tend to prevent vices and crimes, 
and to raise their souls above the degrading pleasures of intem- 
perance and sensuality ; because it will render them more expert 
in their mechanical professions; because it will fit them for be- 
coming improvers of the arts an& "^v^#3.^gq...and for taking a part 
in all those movements by which society mViy-^v.i'-'^/i^iLr'v^l.jind 
the world regenerated; and because they are beings destm^u'^-^c 
immortality, and therefore ought to be instructed in every depart- 
ment of knowledire which has a bearinir on the future world to 
which they are advancing, and which is calculated to prepare 
them for its pleasures and its employments. But, as I have 
already written a volume chiefly in relation to this point, it would 
be unnecessary, on the present occasion, to enlarge. 



284 MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 

CHAPTER VII. 
Moral and Religious Instruction* 

In the preceding sketches I have taken for granted, tliat during 
the whole process of education, the attention of the young should 
be directed to the manifestations . of the Divine attributes in the 
works of nature — the fundamental principles of Christianity — the 
rules of moral action — and the eternal world to which they are 
destined.' These are subjects which should never be lost sight of 
for a single day, and which should be interwoven with every 
department of literary and scientific instruction. In a particular 
manner it should be deeply impressed upon the minds of the 
young, that the instructions they receive, and the studies in which 
they noiD engage, are intended, not merely to qualify them for the 
business of the present life, but likewise to prepare them for the 
felicities and the employments of the life to come. This is one 
of the ends of education which has been glaringly overlooked in 
most of our initiatory schools, and particularly in the arrangements 
connected with a fashionable education — a circumstance which 
seems to indicate, that the superintendents of such an education 
either do not believe the doctrine of a future state, or view it as a 
matter of little importance, or consider that no specific training is 
requisite to qualify a depraved human being for engaging in the 
sublime contemplations and exercises of the heavenly world. — 
Having occasionally adverted to this subject in the preceding dis- 
cussions, I^hall, at present, offer only a few general remarks. 

On all occasions, the young should be frequently reminded, 
that they are denpr^^^^'v^S/^edtures, who derived their existence 
,.r— . ^jx/'A\mighty Being who is without beginning and without 
end — that their daily comforts and all their powers and faculties 
are bestowed by Him, and are the effects of his unbounded Good- 
ness — that, though invisible to mortal eyes, he is present in all 
places, and that they are every moment surrounded by his im- 
mensity — that his presence and agency are seen in the solar 
light, the majestic movements of the heavenly orbs, the succession 
of day and night, the ebbing and flowing of the sea, the falling 
rain, the winds, the lightnings, the rolling thunders, and in every 
movement within us and around us — that though we could climb 
the heights of heaven, or descend to the centre of the earth, we 
should still be within the range of his omniscient eye — that his 
eye penetrates through the dark night as well as through the 
clear day — that he knows every thought and purpose that is 
formed in our hearts — that he beholds, at the same moment, 



KNOWLEDGE OF THE DEITY. 285 

whatever is taking place, in every part of the world, and through- 
out all the regions of the universe, among all the tribes of man- 
kind, and among all the hosts of angels — that his dominion 
extends over thousands of worlds, and that his universal govern- 
ment shall endure for ever — that he is good to all, and that his 
kindness extends to the birds of the air, the fishes of the sea, and 
even to the smallest insect that crawls on the ground — that he is 
" righteous in all his ways and holy in all his works," unchange- 
able in his purposes and faithful to his word — that to this Great 
Being we are all accountable for every thought, word, and action 
— and that there is a day approaching when " he will judge the 
world in righteousness, and render to every one according to his 
works." — Such characteristics of the Divine Being should be 
illustrated, in so far as is practicable, from sensible objects, — His 
sroodness, from the numerous creatures He has brought into exis- 
tence, and the ample provision He has made for all their necessi- 
ties, — His wisdom, from the numerous adaptations which are 
found in our own bodies, and in the elements around us, — His 
power, from the vast bulk of this world, and of the planetary orbs, 
and the amazing rapidity of their motions, — \{\s justice, from the 
judgments inflicted on wicked nations, — His faithfulness, from 
the accomplishment of promises and prophecies, as recorded in 
the history of the world, — and His love and mercy, in " sending 
His Son into the world to be the propitiation for our sins." 

In attempting to explain the attributes of the Deity, and to im- 
press the minds of the young with a deep sense of his universal 
presence and agency, it is not necessary that they should commit 
to memory complex and technical definitions and descriptions of 
the Divine perfections. Such exercises, unaccompanied with 
specific and familiar illustrations, can produce no clear and well- 
defined conceptions of the objects to which they refer ; and when 
mere words are crammed into the memory unconnected with 
ideas, they must produce a hurtful effect, and lead the young to 
rest in the form of knowledge without the substance. Besides, 
every memorial task in which the ideas connected with the words 
are not clearly perceived is always accompanied with a painful 
effort. As all our ideas on every subject are originally derived 
from the objects of sense, so it is by sensible illustrations alone 
that we can convey to any mind whatever, distinct conceptions 
of the character and attributes of the Almighty. Although a 
definition of any of the Divine perfections may be stated to the 
young, yet it is chiefly by examples illustrative of the subject, 
that a clear and comprehensive idea of it can be convej-ed. For 
example, suppose it were intended to explain what is meant by 



286 ATTRIBUTES OP THE DEITY. 

the wisdom of God, we might tell them In the words of one author, 
that "Wisdom is that whereby the soul is directed in the skilful 
management of things, or in ordering them for the best," — or, in 
the language of another, that " The wisdom of God is that per- 
fection by which he selects and adopts the most proper means for 
accomplishing good or important ends :" but such definitions, 
simply announced, would convey no definite conception of the 
thing intended. We must produce objects, or examples, in which 
wisdom is displayed, and describe them in the most minute and 
familiar manner. We must illustrate, in the first place, what is 
meant by the wisdom of men, by producing a clock, a watch, a 
planetarium, a microscope, a ship, or similar machine — pointing 
out the object intended to be accomplished by such instruments 
or machines, and directing the attention to the means employed, 
and the harmonious co-operation of every part in accomplishing 
the end intended. In a watch, for instance, the object is, to point 
out the hour of the day. The means employed to effectuate this 
purpose are — a coiled elastic spring, communicating its action to 
the fusee, thence to a series of wheels and pinions, the teeth of 
which apply to each other, conducting the motion to the balance, 
and thence to the indexes which point out the hour and minute. 
The proper position and arrangement of all these parts, the size 
and shape of the whole, the number of teeth they respectively 
contain, the materials of which they are constructed, the connec- 
tion of one part with another, and the harmonious co-operation 
of the whole to produce the respective motions of the hands, indi- 
cate wisdom and design in the contriver of such a machine, in 
his selecting the proper means to accomplish the purpose intended. 
In a similar manner, the wisdom of the Creator must be illustrated 
by selecting, out of the many thousands of instances within and 
around us, a few examples, which should be particularly described 
and elucidated. For example, the admirable structure of the eye^ 
the different humours of which it is composed, for the purpose of 
forming an accurate picture of every object on the retina — the 
apparatus for the contraction and dilatation of the pupil, to adapt 
it to different degrees of light — the muscles by which the ball of 
the eye may be easily moved in every direction, and preserved 
in perfect steadiness — the bony socket in which it is lodged to 
secure it against accidents — the lid which likewise defends it 
ao-ainst injuries, wipes off the superfluous moisture, and covers it 
during the hours of^ sleep — with many other curious contrivances, 
.all adapted to the nature of light, and to the purpose of producing 
vision in the most easy and delightful manner, showing the most 
admirable selection of means to bring into full effect the end pro- 



INSTRUCTIONS IN THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES. 287 

posed. In like manner, the curious structure of the ear, and the 
adaptation of all its parts for receiving impressions from the undu- 
lations of the atmosphere — the different articulations of the bones, 
according to the movements they are intended to produce — the 
adaptation of the air to the lungs, and the vesicles of the lungs 
to the nature and properties of the atmosphere — the proportioning 
of the size of man to that of the plants and animals which exist 
around him — the structure of the various animated beings, and 
the diversity of organization which exists among them, exactly 
adapted to their various wants and modes of existence — the gra- 
dual approaches of light and darkness — the harmony and order 
of the celestial motions — and similar examples, when particularly 
explained and illustrated, will convey clear ideas of what is meant 
by the wisdom of God, and the manner in which it is displayed 
in the scenes of creation ; and in no other way can we impart 
clear and well-defined conceptions on such a subject. And, when 
once a clear conception of this attribute of the Deity is impressed 
upon the mind by such examples, it may be applied to moral 
subjects, and illustrated from the moral dispensations of God 
towards our race, as recorded in the Sacred History, and in the 
general history of the world. 

Again, suppose we wish to explain the Infinity or Immensity 
of the Divine Being, it is not enough to say that " God is without 
all bounds or limits ;" — we must endeavour to illustrate the idea by 
sensible representations, in so far as they are capable of assisting 
our conceptions on the subject. It may be laid down as a princi- 
ple, that " Wherever God acts, there he is, and that there is no 
part of the universe in which we do not perceive the exertion of 
an agency which, either mediately or immediately, proceeds from 
the Deity." The motions of the moon and the planets, the ebb- 
ing and flowing of the sea, the gentle breeze, the impetuous 
whirlwind, the process of vegetation, the movements of animals, 
the motions of our fingers and eyelids, the pulsation of our hearts, 
and every other agency within and around us, are sensible evi- 
dences of the presence and incessant operation of the Almighty. 
And although we were to wing our flight beyond the limits of this 
sublunary sphere, there is no part of space with which we are 
acquainted, in which we should not find ourselves surrounded 
with the emanations of light, the action of gravitation, and the 
influence of caloric, and other agencies with which we are at 
present unacquainted. — With regard to the idea of infinity, in so 
far as a partial conception of it can be conveyed, we must likewise 
have recourse to sensible objects and illustrations. We must en- 
deavour, in the first place, to communicate an ample and impres- 



288 HISTORY OF THE DIVINE DISPENSATIONS. 

sive idea of the extent of the globe on which we dwell, by such 
methods as stated under the article Geography. We may next 
endeavour to give the pupil an idea of the distance of the moon ; 
then of the distance of the sun, which is placed 400 times farther 
from the earth ; then of the distance of the nearest star, which 
is two hundred thousand times farther from us than the sun ; 
then to the remotest stars visible through the best telescopes, 
whose distance is immensely greater; and then to the boundless 
regions of space, which extend in every direction, beyond all that 
is visible to the eye of mortals. Time must be allowed for the 
mind to pause and dwell with particularity on each of these di- 
mensions, and on the immense magnitude of the numerous objects 
contained within them, till it is lost and overpowered in the im- 
mensity of the prospect; and then be informed, that all this mag- 
nificent scene is but a small portion — only like a drop to the 
ocean — of the infinity of space, which is filled with the Divine 
presence, and in which the Deity continually operates. Without 
such illustrations, all the definitions or metaphysical descriptions 
that may be given, will convey no impressive conceptions of the 
immensity of God — they will be only words without meaning, 
and the semblance of knowledge without the substance. It is on 
a principle of this kind that the Psalmist conducts his description 
of the Omnipresence of the Deity in the 139th Psalm — " Whith- 
er shall I go from thy Spirit 1 or whither shall I flee from thy 
presence ? If I ascend into heaven, thou art there ; if I descend 
into hades,'''' or the invisible regions of the earth, " behold thou 
art there. If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the 
uttermost parts of the sea ; even there shall thy hand lead me, 
and thy right hand shall hold me." When the inspired writers 
display the character and attributes of the Deity, they do not per- 
plex us with definitions and abstract descriptions, but direct us to 
his visible operations in Nature and Providence, as descriptive of 
his character and perfections ; and this circumstance must be con- 
sidered as suggesting the proper mode of illustrating his attributes, 
either to the young, or to any other class of individuals. 

In connection with such instructions as the above, the juvenile 
mind should be directed to the History of the Divine dispensa- 
tionSy as recorded in the Old and New Testaments. It is a strik- 
ing fact, that the greater part of the Revelations of Heaven is 
communicated in a historical form. Had the limited views of- 
man been adopted, as to the mode of a communication from hea- 
ven, it would have been thrown into the form of an artificial sys- 
tem of propositions or doctrines, similar to some of our metaphysi- 
cal compends of theology. But " He who knoweth our frame," 



HISTORY OF THE DIVINE DISPENSATIONS. 2S9 

and who is the Source of intelligence, has selected the historical 
form as the most proper mode of conveying instruction on those 
subjects which have a reference to our present and everlasting 
happiness. This mode of instruction is evidently attended witli 
many and peculiar advantages. It is calculated to arrest the at- 
tention, to influence the affections, to awaken the power of imagi- 
nation, to carry conviction to the mind, to render truth and duty 
more level to the understanding than abstract doctrines or pre- 
cepts, and to make a deeper impression upon the memory than any 
other mode of instruction. Besides, the Sacred history, in a par- 
ticular manner, is remarkable for its beauty and simplicity, the 
dignity of its style, and the fidelity and impartiality with which 
its narrations are conducted. It delineates, with an unerring pen- 
cil, the true characters of men, traces the invisible springs of hu- 
man actions and events, relates with uniform fidelity the faults of 
the most eminent and illustrious saints, and exhibits examples of 
vicious characters to be shunned, and of virtuous characters, 
blended with certain imperfections, as models for our general 
imitation. Above all, it embodies virtue in its most amiable and 
sublime form, in the account which it gives of the life, transactions, 
and sufferings of Jesus Christ, who is set before us di perfect pat- 
tern of universal holiness. 

The young should, therefore, be early directed in the study of 
all those portions of Sacred history which are most congenial to 
their feelings and level to their comprehension ; — particularly the 
history of the creation and the fall of man — the circumstances 
which attended the universal deluge — the destruction of Sodom 
— the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Samuel 
— the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, and the leading 
events which befel them in the wilderness, and in the land of Ca- 
naan — the life and transactions of Elijah and Elisha — the de- 
liverances of Jonah, Daniel, Shadrach, Meshech, Abednego, Peter, 
and Paul — the circumstances which attended the birth, the trans- 
figuration, the crucifixion, the resurrection, and ascension of Jesus 
Christ — the preaching of the gospel by the Apostles, and the va- 
rious persecutions and success which attended their labours — to- 
gether with every similar detail in the history of the Bible, that 
may be calculated to arrest the attention of the juvenile mind. — 
In connection with ihe facts which these histories record, all the 
essential doctrines of religion are clearly stated, and lis precepts, 
or the true principles of human action, are powerfully, though in 
some cases silently, inculcated. Thus religion is exhibited, not 
merely as a creed or a series of abstract propositions to be be- 
lieved, but in an embodied foriUy in which the doctrines and duties 

25 



290 BIBLE INSTRUCTIONS. 

of Christianity are connected with a train of events, incidents, 
and sensible objects, and with the delineation of t;haracters and 
moral actions, which form so many links of association between 
doctrine and practice which cannot be dissevered. It is evident, 
then, that the mode in which Revelation has been communicated 
to man is intended as a model to direct us in imparting religious 
instructions to the young, or to any other class of society. And, 
when we substitute, in the room of the Scriptures, catechisms, or 
any other abstract compends of divinity, however orthodox, we 
virtually declare, that the wisdom of man is superior to the wis- 
dom of God, and that the plans devised by erring mortals are to 
be set in competition with the plan of inspired men, who derived 
their instructions immediately from the Divine Spirit. Besides, 
the instructions on religion derived from such compilations, even 
when understood, (which they seldom are,) are received by the 
young merely on the authority of the authors or compilers, and 
can never produce such a thorough and rational conviction of 
their truth and obligation, as if they were delivered in the lan- 
guage of men who derived their instructions and commission im- 
mediately from Heaven. In deviating from the plan of Divine 
Revelation, numerous disputes and dissensions have arisen in 
Christian society. Almost all the controversies and dissensions 
which have taken place as to the manner of conducting Sabbath 
schools, have arisen from such a circumstance as this — Shall the 
words of a certain Catechism, whether understood or not, be 
crammed into the memories of all the pupils? With one party 
it is of little consequence although the same leading truths be 
communicated in scriptural or other language, unless the precise 
vocables of the formulary they approve of be strictly adhered to 
and committed to memory, as if they were the immediate dictates 
of inspiration. Hence a sectarian spirit has been engendered, 
contentions and wranglings have been introduced, the advantages 
which might have been derived from the study of the pure ora- 
cles of heaven prevented, and the religious improvement of the 
yoang sacrificed to party rancour and hostility. 

It appears to me unnecessary, in the first instance, to perplex 
the minds of young persons with a great variety of doctrinal 
opinions, such as are generally inculcated in most of our Con- 
fessions and Catechisms. It is only requisite that a few of the 
fundamental and leading doctrines of Christianity be exhibited, 
such as the moral attributes of the Deity — the fall of man, and 
his consequent depravity — the necessity of a Saviour — the love 
of God in sending his Son into the world to be a propitiation for 
our sins — repentance towards God, and faith towards our Lord 



PRECEPTS INCULCATED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 291 

Jesus Christ, the necessity of being renewed in the spirit of our 
minds, and of prosecuting the path of universal holiness — the 
connection of the present state with the future, and the important 
realities of the eternal world. These, and similar truths inti- 
mately connected with them, should be specifically illustrated, 
and deeply impressed upon the mind as the first principles or 
axioms of the Christian system. In conjunction with these, 
some of the leading moral precepts of the Bible should be par- 
ticularly inculcated, and illustrated by appropriate examples, such 
as — " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart — 
Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself — Whatsoever ye would 
that men should do to you, do ye even so to them — Love your ene- 
mies, do good to them that hate you — Bless them who curse you 
— If thine enemy hunger, feed him, if he thirst give him drink — 
Let love be without dissimulation — Live peaceably with all men 
— Be not desirous of vain glory — Recompense to no one evil for 
evil — Put on humbleness of mind, meekness and long-suffering — 
Forbear one another, and forgive one another, if any man have 
a quarrel against any : as Christ forgave you, so also do ye — 
Put away lying, and speak every man truth with his neighbour 
— Children, obey your parents — Be followers of Christ who did 
no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth, and who hath left 
us an example that we should walk in his steps." Such Christian 
precepts, frequently brought to the view of the mind, and famili- 
arly illustrated by examples derived from Scripture, and from 
common life, could not but make an impression on the young, far 
more beneficial than if it were possible to cram into their memories 
all the definitions, distinctions, and dogmas of metaphysical the- 
ology. Such heavenly injunctions, when clearly explained, come 
home to the understanding and the feelings ; they are recognised 
as the pure dictates of the Spirit of God ; and although there 
were no other precepts presented to view but those I have now 
stated, a full recognition of such heavenly principles, in all their 
practical bearings, would, ere long, completely regenerate the 
world, and cause righteousness and praise to spring forth before 
all nations. 

In endeavouring to teach young persons the morality of the 
Bible, and to imbue their minds with its holy principles, it is not 
enough that its precepts be announced, and that they be accus- 
tomexl to recite them. They should be pointedly applied to every 
moral incident that may occur, and to whatever tempers or dis- 
positions may be displayed in their conduct. Every time a vicious 
disposition manifests itself a Christian precept should he ap. 
plied to counteract it. Is a boy, for instance, taking revenge on 



292 MORAL TRAINING. 

his companion for an injury either real or supposed, such precepts 
as these should be pointedly addressed to him : — " Recompense 
to no man evil for evil. — Avenge not yourselves, but give place 
to wrath. — Bless them that curse you, and pray for them that 
despitefully use you." Does he manifest a proud and overbear- 
ing disposition? Apply such divine maxims as these: — "God 
resisteth the proud, but he giveth grace to the humble. — A proud 
heart is an abomination to the Lord. — Though God is high, he 
hath respect to the lowly ; but the proud he knoweth afar off. — 
Put on humbleness of mind, meekness and long suffering ; and 
let each esteem another better than himself." Does a principle 
of envy, hatred, or malice, manifest itself? Those passages of 
Scripture which condemn such dispositions should be brought 
forward and illustrated : — " Let all bitterness, and wrath, and 
clamour, and evil-speaking, be put away from you, with all 
malice. — The works of the flesh are hatred, strife, envies, mur- 
ders, &c. — He that hateth his brother is a murderer. — If a man 
say, I love God, and hateth his brother, he is a liar. — Where 
envy and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work." The 
tendency of such dispositions, and the dreadful consequences 
which frequently result from them, should be illustrated by such 
examples as these : — The brothers of Joseph envied and hated 
him, and under the influence of these diabolical affections, would 
have murdered him, if the providence of God had not prevented. 
— Ahab envied Naboth, and caused him to be put to death. — 
Haman hated Mordecai, and caused a gallows be prepared for 
his destruction, on which he himself was hanged. — The Jews, 
from hatred and " envy," delivered up Jesus to the Roman gover- 
nor to be crucified. In like manner it may be shown, that all the 
wars, contentions, and persecutions, which have convulsed and 
desolated the world, are the natural results of envy and hatred, 
and that the indulgence of such principles unfits the soul for the 
enjoyment of eternal life. 

There can scarcely be a doubt, that the best mode of impress- 
ing the minds of the young with the moral principles of Christi- 
anity is, to exhibit the operation of these principles in real life, 
and to point out specifically those dispositions and modes of con- 
duct which are directly opposed to the precepts laid down by our 
Saviour, and to the example he has set before us. For this pur- 
pose, a watchful eye should be kept on their conduct, and on the 
temper it displays. Even the most minute ramifications of their 
conduct should be strictly inspected ; and those looks and gestures, 
words and actions, which may at first sight appear trivial or in- 
different, should not be altogether overlooked ; for, in many in- 



MORAL TRAINING. 293 

Stances, they manifest the existence of an evil principle ready to 
burst forth into action, and which should be carefully counter- 
acted. There are a great many dispositions of this kind which 
are daily manifested in families, and at public seminaries, which 
are either altogether overlooked, or considered as the mere ebulli- 
tions of youthful frolic or amusement, which, nevertheless, involve 
principles altogether inconsistent with the dictates of inspiration, 
and with the harmony and order of the intelligent universe. And 
if such evil principles be not destroyed in the bud, they will 
" grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength," 
till they appear in all their noxious luxuriance in the active scenes 
of social life. The following are some of the practices to which 
I allude : — Tossing away hats and caps, calling nicknames, tear- 
ing books, acting deceitfully in making bargains, pinching and 
scratching, boxing and fighting, taking delight in teazing and 
vexing one another, mocking at natural defects and infirmities, 
valuing themselves on account of the finery of their dress, taking 
revenge of injuries, envying their companions on account of their 
acquirements and the approbation bestowed upon them, mani- 
festing a spirit of pride and domination, mocking the aged, the 
lame, or the blind, wanton cruelty towards the inferior animals, 
or encouraging them to fight with each other, injuring trees, 
shrubs, or flowers, cutting or hacking walls, tables, or any useful 
piece of furniture, equivocating when giving evidence in relation 
to any fact, — and many similar practices, which are too seldom 
counteracted by the proper application of Christian principles. In 
particular, the practice of boxing and fighting, and every other 
revengeful action, should be reprobated and condemned with the 
utmost firmness and decision, as subversive of every principle 
that pervades the Christian system. That such practices have 
abounded at our public schools, and still too much abound, is a 
disgrace to our character as a professing Christian people, and to 
those who have the superintendence of the morals of the young. 
The practice of pilfering should likewise be promptly checked, 
and a strict regard to honesty and uprightness encouraged and 
enforced. However trifling the value of the article — although it 
should be only a pin, a gooseberry, a pea, a marble, or a cherry- 
stone, no one should be allowed to interfere with it, if it is claimed 
as the property of another ; for it is not the value of the article, 
but the principle of the action, which demands our consideration. 
Above all, lying should be represented in such a light as to be 
held in universal abhorrence; and the importance of truth — 
which is the bond of society, and the basis of the intelligent uni- 

25* 



294 MORAL TRAINING. 

verse — should be illustrated and enforced by every scriptural and 
rational consideration. 

For the purpose of illustrating the principles of moral action, 
and of applying the precepts of Christianity to particular cases of 
delinquency, it might be proper to set apart a portion of one day 
in the week for inquiring into moral conduct, whether blameable 
or praiseworthy. Cases of this description would be known to 
the teacher, and others would be brought forward by the young 
people themselves. A particular case should be stated in all its 
circumstances, and the attention of the whole school directed to it. 
Suppose a boy has been convicted o^ falsehood — having sauntered 
about the fields in company with some idle companions, when he 
should have been at school, and having afterwards informed his 
parents that he was then regularly attending on his instructions. 
The precepts of the Word of God which bear against falsehood, 
should, in the first place, be brought forward, — such as, " Thou 
shalt not bear false witness. — The Lord hateth a lying tongue. — 
Lie not one to another. — Putting away lying, let every man speak 
truth with his neighbour. — All liars shall have their part in the 
lake which burneth with fire and brimstone." The dismal con- 
sequences which would follow, if truth were universally violated, 
might next be stated. All confidence among intelligent beings 
would be completely destroyed ; there could be no friendship nor 
affectionate social intercourse — no improvement in knowledge — 
no seminaries of learning, no villages or towns could be reared, 
nor fields cultivated — every one would shun the society of his 
neighbour, and we could become acquainted with nothing but 
what we ourselves had seen or experienced. The happy effects 
which would result from a universal adherence to truth might then 
be illustrated; and a narrative or two might be read, exemplifying 
the importance of truth, and the mischievous effects of falsehood. 
Abundance of such narratives will be found, both in civil and in 
sacred history, and they should always be at hand for illustrating 
and enforcing instructions of this kind. The delinquent should 
then be reasoned with on his conduct, and admonished with such 
seriousness and mildness as may tend to convince him that you 
have his best interests at heart. In like manner should all other 
kinds of delinquencies be publicly investigated, and the opposite 
virtues explained and inculcated. When a youth has been found 
frequently guilty of committing the same fault, after repeated 
admonition, it may be proper that punishment of some kind or 
other be inflicted upon him. Corporeal punishment, however, 
will seldom have any good eflect. Few cases, I presume, will 
be found, where either young or old have been whipped into the 



MORAL TRAINING. 295 

paths of wisdom and holiness. The punishment selected should 
be such as has a tendency to excite reflection on the evil of the 
ofTence, and to lead to penitence. Till repentance and amendment 
be clearly-manifested, the delinquent should be banished from the 
play-ground, and from all the usual sports and associations of his 
companions, that he may feel ashamed of his conduct ; and when 
he has given full satisfaction to his teacher and his school-fellows, 
let him be cordially received into favour, and reinstated in his for- 
mer privileges. This is the principle which the Apostle Paul lays 
down with respect to the members of Christian Churches : — 
" Withdraw yourselves from every brother that walketh disor- 
derly." And I see no reason why the same principle may not be 
applied to accomplish the same end in the case of the juvenile 
members of public seminaries. It is to be understood, however, 
that it is only those faults which are publicly known that should 
be publicly investigated, — those which are known only to the 
teacher and the delinquent should be discussed in private, in the 
manner now suggested, or in any other way that circumstances 
may dictate. 

Actions which are praiseworthy should likewise be publicly 
noticed, and mentioned with due commendation. If any young 
person has rescued a little girl from the hands of wicked boys 
who had been maltreating her, and conducted her safely home — 
if he has shared a morsel of his bread with a hungry fellow-crea- 
ture — if he has found a toy, a book, a pocket-handkerchief, or a 
piece of money, and restored it to the owner — if he has showed 
kindness to the blind or lame — if he is attentive to his learning, 
and obedient to his parents and instructors, — such examples of 
virtuous conduct should receive their due meed of praise, and be 
exhibited as patterns for imitation, and those Christian precepts 
which enjoin them brought Ibrward and inculcated. Commenda- 
tion animates and encourages the minds of children, and when it 
is merited should never be withheld. At the same time, they 
should be reminded, that when they have done all that they were 
commanded, they have done nothing more than what was their 
duty to do ; and, that no services of ours, however praiseworthy, 
can be meritorious in the sight of God ; that such actions, how- 
ever, are essentially necessary as evidences of a renewed nature 
and of our subjection to the authority of God — that they promote 
our own comfort and the happiness of others — and that they pre- 
pare us for the employments and the society of heaven, where al 
the Christian virtues will be displayed in perfection without any 
mixture of evil. — Were such instructions and illustrations cf 
moral principle, as now suggested, regularly attended to, ai d 



296 STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

every disposition and action of the young submitted to the test of 
Christian principle, there can scarcely be a doubt that the most , 
beneficial results would soon appear, and the moral state of soci- 
ety be improved far beyond what we have ever yet experienced. 
But, if we are remiss in our attention to the best interests of the 
young, and refuse to bring into full operation a rational system 
of moral and religious instruction, we have no right to complain 
of the vicious dispositions of the rising generation, or the licen- 
tiousness and depravity of general society. 

In recommending to the young the study of the Scriptures, 
every requisite direction and assistance should be afforded to 
guide them in their researches into the oracles of God. When 
reading the historical parts either of the Old or the New Testa- 
ment, maps of Palestine, and of the adjacent countries, should 
be put into their hands, that they may be enabled to trace the 
journeyings of the Israelites in the wilderness, the relative posi- 
tions of the twelve tribes in the land of Canaan, the travels of 
Jesus Christ and his apostles, and the situations of the principal 
cities, towns, mountains, rivers, lakes, and seas, mentioned in the 
Bible. To assist their conceptions of the Jewish tabernacle and 
temple, plans of these buildings should be presented, along with 
figures of the altar of burnt-offering and of incense, the ark of 
the covenant, the table of show-bread, the golden candlesticks, 
the brazen laver, and other sacred utensils. To illustrate the an- 
tiquities of the Jews and other eastern nations, their customs, 
buildings, &c. sketches should be given of their manners and 
customs, arts, sciences, vegetable productions, and peculiarities 
of climate, which are frequently alluded to by the sacred writers, 
and which should be illustrated by engravings in so far as they 
tend to convey ideas on the subject. They should be taught to 
acquire clear conceptions about every thing they read, and, when 
they meet with difficulties or obscurities, never to rest satisfied 
till they receive the requisite explanations. When they read a 
description of any scene or transaction, such as the Israelites 
passing through the Red Sea, or assembled around Mount Sinai 
— our Saviour teaching the multitudes from a ship on the Lake of 
Gennesaret — or Paul standing on Mars hill, addressing the people 
of Athens — they should be instructed to represent in their imagi- 
nation the various objects which compose the scene as delineated 
by the historian, whether mountains, rivers, seas, corn-fields, 
buildings, or assembled multitudes, which would tend to connect 
with sensible objects the moral instructions to be derived from 
such narratives. In forming such pictures of imagination they 
might be assisted by the teacher selecting parts of those scenes 



SCRIPTURE TEXT-BOOK. 297 

in their own country with which they are acquainted, and leading 
them to imagine the objects and transactions recorded in the Bible 
as passing immediately before them amidst the scenery with which 
they are familiar; or by presenting before them accurate en- 
gravings of the natural and artificial objects connected with Judea 
and other eastern countries, in so far as they can be procured. In 
this point of view, it is much to be regretted, that almost all the 
pictorial illustrations of our " Family Bibles" are absolutely worth- 
less and worse than useless, omitting almost every thing that is 
instructive and consistent with fact, and introducing silly and fic- 
titious scenes, full of anachronisms, inconsistencies, and violations 
of costume, which have no other tendency than to convey a de- 
grading and distorted conception of the scenes recorded in sacred 
history. Above all things, the young should be directed to con- 
sider, that every transaction recorded in Scripture is intended to 
produce an intellectual and a moral effect, either to display the 
perfections of God, the character of his moral government, the 
safety and happiness of those who put their trust in him, the 
evil tendency of disobedience to his laws, or the path of duty in 
which we ought to walk in the various circumstances in which 
we may be placed. " All Scripture is profitable for doctrine, for 
correction, for reproof, and for instruction in righteousness ;" and 
therefore the study of no portion of sacred history should be dis- 
continued, till its moral instructions be clearly perceived and ap- 
plied. Questions and exercises of various kinds, in relation to 
scriptural facts, doctrines, and duties, should be prescribed, to 
excite the attention, and direct the judgment of the young in their 
investigation of divine subjects; but as we have now various little 
books calculated to direct the juvenile mind in such exercises, it 
is needless to dwell on the subject. 

It might not be improper to have a text-book or two, selected 
from Scripture, and interspersed with occasional remarks, tending 
to elucidate certain passages and events. We have class-books 
for schools, the greater part of which is selected from plays, 
novels, farces, and Pagan historians and moralists. And why 
should we not have a text-book selected from the oracles of inspi- 
ration, which contain a greater variety of sublime and important 
matter than is to be found in any other source of information 1 
Such a text-book might comprise selections on such topics as the 
following : — Subjects which tend to expand our intellectual views 
of the Deity, and of the universe he has created — comprisino- 
descriptions of the Majesty and Supremacy of Jehovah, the 
eternity of his existence, his universal presence and agency, his 
love, faithfulness, and immutability, his unbounded goodness, the 



298 SABBATH SCHOOLS. 

wisdom and rectitude of his moral government, and the care he 
exercises over every order of his creatures — the existence of an- 
gels, and the offices they perform under the Divine administra- 
tion — the immortal destiny of man, and the prospects opened to 
the righteous of eternal felicity in the future world. Selections 
in reference to the affections and the duties incumbent upon per- 
sons in the different relations of life. In this department those 
duties and affections which ^ve peculiarly christian, should stand 
prominent, such as humility, lowliness of mind, love to enemies, 
doing good to those who hate us, striving against sin, loving our 
neighbour as ourselves, cultivating heavenly desires and affections, 
&c. Selections addressed to the taste and imagination — em- 
bodying the beauties of history, poetry, and eloquence, which 
are profusedly scattered throughout the sacred writings. Selec- 
tions of biography, including the lives of Jacob, Joseph, Moses, 
Elijah, Hezekiah, Daniel, John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul, &c. 
These, along with selections on various other subjects, might be 
illustrated with critical remarks, extracts from works on Eastern 
manners and customs, descriptions of modern Palestine, and the 
adjacent countries, the accomplishments of Scripture prophecies, 
as recorded in history, anecdotes of young persons, the lives of 
true Christians, the judgments which have befallen persecutors 
and apostates, the progress of Christianity through the world, 
and the benign effects it has produced on the state of society. 
Such a work, if judiciously arranged and executed, and studied 
with care, could not but produce a beneficial influence on the taste 
and affections of the young, and lead them to admire and venerate 
the oracles of heaven. It is, doubtless, one cause of the low state 
of Christianity, and of the influence of Pagan maxims in general 
society, that such text-books have never yet been introduced into 
our seminaries of education. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Sabbath Schools. 



Of late years these institutions have rapidly increased, both in 
Great Britain and in the United States of America, and, if pro- 
perly conducted, are calculated to produce a highly beneficial ef- 
fect on the religious improvement of the rising generation. In a 
preceding part of this volume I offered a (ew strictures on the 
mode in which some of these institutions were formerly con- 
ducted ; and, although the evils there complained of still exist to 



SABBATH SCHOOLS. 299 

a certain extent, I am happy to say, that in many of these schools 
a more rational and efficient system is now beginning to be 
adopted. The teachers, many of whom are men of piety and 
intelligence, are now convinced of the futility of mere memorial 
exercises, and are beginning to address the understanding and 
the affections of their pupils, so that they may be enabled to en- 
ter into the spirit and meaning of the truths inculcated. Still, 
however, I am decidedly of opinion, from all that I have ever 
witnessed in these institutions, that the system of religious in- 
struction is far from having reached its highest pitch of improve- 
ment, and that it is susceptible of being carried to a degree 
of perfection which it has never yet attained. The evils and de- 
fects which adhere to the system as it exists in most of our Sab- 
bath school institutions, are such as the following: — 1. The 
memory is still too much exercised and burdened with the reten- 
tion of words, while a corresponding degree of attention is not 
paid to the exercise of the rational faculty. 2. Religiovs instruc- 
lion is too much confined as to the range of its objects and illus- 
trations. Instead of confining it chiefly to a few propositions in 
regard to what are termed the fundamental doctrines of the gos- 
pel, it should extend to the whole range of objects comprised 
within the compass of Divine Revelation, and to all the illustra- 
tions of those objects which can be derived from history, geogra- 
phy, the sciences, and the works of nature. 3. Discussions on 
systematic theology too frequently usurp the place of pointed 
moral instructions addressed to the affections and the conscience. 
4. Catechisms and other human formularies are too frequently 
set in competition with the instructions to be derived directly from 
the Scriptures. 5. Many of the teachers, however pious and 
well intentioned, are deficient in that degree of biblical and gene- 
ral knowledge which all religious instructors ought to possess. 
This last circumstance I consider as one of the greatest deficien- 
cies in our Sabbath school arrangements, and therefore shall offer 
a few remarks on the subject. 

It is generally admitted, that a professor of any science, such 
as chemistry, ought to be acquainted not only with all its prin- 
ciples and facts, but with those subjects, such as natural history, 
experimental philosophy, and physiology, with which it stands 
connected. It is also admitted, that the religious instruction of 
the adult population, in order to be respectable and efficient, re- 
quires that the ministers of religion be trained to all those branches 
of knowledge which tend to prepare them for their office, and that 
they be men not only of piety, but of talent and intelligence, and 
found qualified by their superiors for the duties they undertake. 



300 SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHERS. 

And can we suppose, that either the literary or the religious tuition 
of the young, can be intelligently or efficiently conducted by men 
who are comparatively ignorant, and who have undergone no 
j>revious training for such an office? On the contrary, I have no 
hesitation in asserting, that instructors of youth ought to have as 
much information on every subject as is usually judged necessary 
for a respectable minister of the gospel, and even more than 
many of this class actually possess. Besides, they ought to pos- 
sess not only clear coticeptions of every portion of knowledge 
they wish to impart, but also of the best modes in which it may 
be communicated with effect to the juvenile mind. It requires 
even more information and greater powers of mind to simplify 
knowledge, and render it perspicuous to the opening intellect, than 
to convey it to the understandings of those who are advanced in 
years. The man who wishes to act as an intellectual and reli- 
gious instructor, should, if possible, acquire a comprehensive view 
of the whole of the revelations of Heaven, and of the collateral 
subjects with which they are connected — of the leading facts of 
ancient and modern history — of the scenery of nature in all its 
varied aspects— of the operations of the Creator which are dis- 
played in the " firmament of his power," and of human nature 
as exhibited in all the scenes and relations of social life. For it 
is from these, and similar sources, that he is to derive his illus- 
tratiojis of divine subjects ; and unless such subjects be illustrated 
by sensible scenes and objects, no clear and distinct ideas can be 
communicated to the young, nor any deep impressions made upon 
their hearts. The instructor of the young must have the faculty 
of ascertaining the range of thought possessed by his pupils — of 
adapting his instructions to that range of thought — and of ren- 
dering the ideas they have already acquired subservient for in- 
creasing their number, and for opening a wider field of intellectual 
vision. For this purpose, his imagination must roam over the 
whole circle of his own knowledge, to select objects, events, 
scenes, circumstances, and similes, adapted to the comprehension 
of his pupils, and calculated to expand their views, and to illus- 
trate the particular subject to which their attention is directed. 
He must sometimes extend his views to the histories of ancient 
times, both sacred and profane, to the circumstances which attended 
the accomplishment of ancient prophecies, and to the doctrines, 
maxims, and precepts of the Bible — sometimes to the knowledge 
he has acquired of the earth, the ocean, or the atmosphere, the 
animal and vegetable creation, or the glories of the heavens — and 
sometimes to the state of barbarous nations, the persecutions of 
the church, the lives of good men, the progress of the gospel 



SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHERS. 801 

among unenlightened tribes, the scenes of domestic life, or the 
wars and revolutions of nations. Circumstances, incidents, anec- 
dotes, descriptions, and similes, derived from such sources, he will 
find expedient, and in some cases necessary, to be brought for- 
ward for explaining and illustrating many portions of Divine Re- 
velation. And therefore, were it possible for a teacher to be a 
man of vjiiversal knoivledge, so much the more qualified would 
he be for imparting religious instruction, provided he had the art 
of simplifying his knowledge, and rendering it subservient to 
moral improvement. If religious instruction, indeed, consisted 
in nothing more than prescribing tasks, and hearing children re- 
cite catechisms, psalms, hymns, and passages of Scripture, any 
man, however ignorant, who had been instructed in the art of 
reading, might be considered as qualified for such an office ; — and 
hence, I have seen men, pious and well-meaning perhaps, but 
ignorant of almost every branch of knowledge, and without any 
clear ideas on the subject of religion, appointed as Sabbath 
school teachers, who did nothing more than take the Psalm-book 
or Catechism into their bands, and put on their spectacles to see 
that the youngsters repeated their prescribed tasks with tolerable 
correctness. But if the great object of religious instruction is, or 
ought to be, the communication of clear ideas respecting the at- 
tributes of God, the principles of his moral government, the va- 
riety and immensity of his works, the history of his providential 
dispensations, the plan of his redemption, and the way in which 
its blessings are to be obtained, the principles of moral action, and 
the rules of duty he has prescribed, and whatever tends to dis- 
play the riches of his grace and the glories of his universal king- 
dom — in so far as such subjects can be imparted to the youthful 
mind — then it is evident, that a religious instructor ought to be 
a person endowed with as much general and Biblical knowledge 
as he can possibly acquire. 

In throwing out the above remarks it is by no means intended to 
insinuate, that no gO(^d has been effected in Sabbath schools where 
the teachers were comparatively ignorant ; as I believe many 
good impressions have been made upon the youthful mind by 
pious and well-meaning men whose range of information was ex- 
tremely limited. But it is evident, at the same time, that were 
such instructors more enlightened than they have generally been, 
a much greater degree of important instruction would be com- 
municated, and a more powerful moral impression made upon 
the heart. 

It is consistent with the dictates of reason and the general 
practice of mankind, that every man should be trained for the 

26 



302 



DEPARTMENTS OF SACRED KNOWLEDGE. 



profession ho adopts, and be found qualified for any office before 
he enter on the performance of its duties. And is the reIi<Tious 
instruction of the young a matter of so trivial importaDce,''that 
such a rule should be set aside in appointing teachers to Sabbath 
schools ] If not, then every one who wishes to devote himself 
to the religious tuition of the rising race, should be regularly 
trained in all those branches of sacred knowledge which are re- 
quisite for rendering his instructions fully efficient for the purpose 
intended. It should likewise be ascertained whether he be of a 
communicative turn of mind, and has acquired a facility of im- 
parting ideas to the youthful understanding ; and for this purpose 
his qualifications should be tried by experiment, by placing under 
his superintendence, for a few days, the instructions of a religious 
seminary. Every one found duly qualified for the office should 
receive a certain pecuniary compensation, as well as the teachers 
of other seminaries, provided he chooses to accept of it. Hitherto 
our Sabbath schools have generally been taught gratis by the 
benevolent individuals who have devoted themselves to this ser- 
vice, and if duly qualified instructors can be found who will give 
their services without remuneration, no objection, of course, 'can 
be brought against such labours of love ; but it is nothing more 
than equitable, that every man who devotes his time and the en- 
ergies of his mind to any object, should receive a fair compensa- 
tion for his exertions, especially when he is under obligation to 
cultivate his intellectual powers, and to pass through a course of 
training for this purpose. 

The departments of knowledge to which religious instructors 
should devote their attention are such as the following; — 1. Sa- 
cred History, or, in other words, the Records of the Divine dis- 
pensations, as contained in the Old and New Testaments. For 
elucidating certain portions of this history, unravelling difficulties, 
answering objections, and explaining various circumstances con- 
nected with the Jewish worship and economy, the perusal of such 
works as Home's " Introduction to the study of the Bible," 
Shuckford's "Connection of Sacred and Profane History," and 
Stackhouse^s " History of the Bible,^^ particularly the last,will be 
found of great utility in expanding our views of the revelations 
of Heaven, and of the facts connected with the moral government 
of God. For illustrating the history of the Jews and surrounding 
nations, from the time of the prophet Malachi to the birth of Christ 
-r— a period of more than four hundred years, during which many 
of Daniel's prophecies were accomplished — the First Book of 
<' The Maccabees," Josephus' " Antiquities," and his " History 
Qf the Wars of tlic Jews," and Prideaux's " Connection of tl/e 



DErARTMENTS OF SACRED STUDY. 303 

ffistory of the Old and New Testament," will be found particu- 
larly useful.*-^2. Ancient History and Geography. The history 
of such nations as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Modes 
and Persians, is so interwoven with the sacred history and the 
predictions of the prophets, tha.t a knowledge of it is, in many in- 
stances, necessary for understanding the descriptions and allusions 
of the inspired writers. Millet's " Elements of General History," 
part i. and *' RoUin's Historical Works," particularly his "An- 
cient History," will afford the most satisfactory information on 
this subject. In connection with the history of ancient nations, 
ancient geography should be particularly studied, for the purpose 
of acquiring clear ideas of the boundaries and divisions of the 
Land of Palestine, and of the relative positions of the countries 
that lie adjacent to it, which are so frequently alluded to in the 
history both of the Old and New Testaments. Without some 
knowledge of this subject we can have no clear conceptions of 
many interesting circumstances recorded in the writings of the 
Prophets and Evangelists, and must frequen-ily read their narra- 
tives without ideas. Maps^ on a large scale, of the countries to 
which I allude, are of course indispensably requisite, when engag- 
ing in this study ; and such maps should be hung up in every 
Sabbath school, and referred to, for illustrating the narratives of 
the sacred historians. Well's "Sacred Geography," and his 
"Set of Maps of Ancient Geograph)^," and similar works, will 
afford the requisite information on this subject. — 3. The circum- 
stances connected with thefulfilment of ancient prophecies. The 
accomplishment of prophecy is recorded either in the sacred his- 
tory itself, in the annals of civil and ecclesiastical history, in the 
present state of the nations and the events passing imder our daily 
observation, — or it is to be looked forward to in the prospects 
wliich will open on future generations. Hence the necessity of 
being acquainted with the history of the Church and of the na- 
tions^ and with the political and religious movements now goino- 
forward throughout the world, if we wish to trace the faithfulness 
of God in the accomplishment of the predictions of his word. 
Such works as Newton's " Dissertations on the Prophecies," and 
Keith's *' Fulfilment of Prophecy," and his ** Signs of the Times," 
will direct the mind to many interesting views on this subject. 

4. Another subject which deserves the attention of relicrious 
instructors, is, Biblical Criticism and interpretation. As the 
Scriptures form the groundwork of all religious knowledge, it is 
of importance to ascertain that the copy or edition which °we use 
approaches as nearly as possible to the original ; and when we 
^fc §^l.isfjed op this point, it is equally important to determine the 



304 DEPARTMENTS OF SACRED STUDY. 

rules by which the different portions of the Bible are to be inter- 
preted, according to the subjects on which they treat. This in- 
cludes an inquiry into the literal meaning of words, and the 
Jigurative sense in which they are frequently used — the scope 
of the writer — the parallel passages — the sources of poetic 
imagery, or the objects whence the sacred writers derive their 
figurative representations — the principles of symbolical language 
— and a knowledge of the localities in which the writers were 
placed, and the historical circumstances to which they allude. 
On this subject many voluminous works have been written ; but 
the general reader may, perhaps, be sufficiently gratified by the 
perusal of such volumes as Carpenter's " Scripture Difliculties," 
and his " Popular Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpreta- 
tion." — 5. The mariners and customs of the Eastern nations. 
The manners, customs, arts, and sciences of the Hebrews, and 
the natural and artificial scenery with which they were surround- 
ed, exerted a powerful influence upon their literary productions — 
even upon those which were dictated by inspiration. Without a 
knowledge of these it is impossible, in many instances, to unravel 
the sense of the inspired writers, to perceive the beauty and em- 
phasis of their compositions, or to feel the full force of their nar- 
ratives and allusions. For the elucidation of this subject we are 
now furnished with a variety of interesting works, of which the 
following are specimens : — Paxton's " Illustrations of Scripture;" 
Harmer's " Observations on certain passages of Scripture ;" Tay- 
lor's " Fragmenta,''^ appended to Cal mot's Dictionary ; Burder's 
"Oriental Customs;" Carpenter's "Scripture Natural History;" 
and the reports of certain modern travellers, such as Burckhardt, 
Buckingham, Legh, Dr. Jowet, and the American Missionaries. 
In the first six volumes of " The Modern Traveller," compiled by 
Mr. Conder, almost every thing will be found requisite for the 
illustration of the physical geography, climate, seasons, &c. of 
Judea, and tjie surrounding countries. An occasional reference 
to such subjects for the elucidation of Scripture, could not fail of 
exciting the attention and improving the understandings of the 
young. 

6. The study of the system of Nature, or the material works 
of God, as displayed throughout the earth and the starry firma- 
ment. To these works the inspired writers, on numerous occa- 
sions, direct our attention, as evidences of the Power, Wisdom, 
and Goodness of Jehovah, and of his superintending Providence. 
They should therefore be studied with care and contemplated 
with an eye of intelligence, as illustrative of the perfections of the 
Deity and of the declarations of his word. There is nothing to 



Avhich young people liston with more attention than to famillnr 
discourses upon the wonclore of citation, when they are dehver- 
ed in a olcar and distinct manner, and made level to their capa- 
cities ; and when the works of God are brought into immediate 
connection with the truths of his word, a more powerful impres- 
sion of these truths, on the principle of association, will be made 
upon the mind. For example, when we describe the immense 
mass of water in the caverns of the ocean ; the lofty ranges of 
mountains ; the flaming volcanoes ; the magnitude of our globe ; 
the rapid motion with which it flies through the voids of space; 
or the immense number and size of the celestial orbs — and bring 
these objects in connection with such passages as these : " He 
holdeth the ocean in the hollow of his hand ; he hangeth the 
earth upon nothing; he meteth out the heavens with a span ; and 
taketh up the isles as a very little thing — Great is our Lord, and 
of great Power, his understanding is infinite — Great and marvel- 
lous are thy works. Lord God Almighty :" &c. — when these 
passages are at any time recalled to mind, the objects which 
illustrate them will naturally occur; and, when the objects them- 
selves are directly contemplated, the mind will revert to the dic- 
tates of inspiration with which they were formerly associated. 
For the purpose of acquiring some general knowledge on this 
subject, religious instructors should peruse some of the popular 
works which have been lately published on the subjects of Natu- 
ral History, Geography, Astronomy, Experimental Philosophy, 
and Chemistry, such as those formerly recommended, and par- 
ticularly those works which treat of Natural Theology, and the 
connection of science with religion.* — Besides the above depart- 
ments, the Sabbath school teacher should study with particular 
attention human nature in all its varieties and modes of operation. 
He should learn to contemplate, with the eye of a Christian 
philosopher, the dispositions of mankind, as displayed in their 
social intercourses, the scenes of public and domestic life, the va- 
rious modes in which the principle of evil operates, and the prac- 
tices, whether good or bad, which prevail either in Christian or in 
general society. From such sources he will derive many home illus- 
trations of the effects of sin, and of the manner in which Chris- 
tian principle should operate in all the ramifications of human 
society. He should likewise study some of the best works on the 
*' Evidences of Christianity " — a system of Divinity such as 
"Dvvight's Theology" — and, above all other branches of know 
ledge, he should study with the utmost care the discourses of 

* See p. 276. 
26* 



306 GENERAL REMARKS ON SABBATH SCHOOLS. 

DUX Saviour, as reported in the Evangelists, and the practical 
parts of the writings of the Prophets and Apostles, which, in 
religious instructions, are too frequently thrown into the -shade. 

In teaching Sabbath schools, a practice which is not uncom- 
mon should be carefully avoided — and that is, addressing long- 
winded discourses to young people, most part of which they do 
not understand. I lately visited a school in a neighbouring town, 
containing from 80 to 100 catechumens. Among these were 
about 20 young persons, chiefly females, from the age of 16 to 
the age of 24; the I'est were children from 7 to 12 years of 
age. After the repetition of texts, psalms, catechisms, and pas- 
sages of Scripture, more than an hour was consumed in some 
crude dissertations, in a preaching style, on the meaning and re- 
ferences of some passages in the prophecies of Isaiah, which 
none of the younger persons could possibly understand ; and 
only about a dozen general questions, for the sake of form, were 
put to the younger class, to which the answers, " yes," or " no," 
were chiefly required. It seemed as if the chief aim of the 
teacher had been to recommend himself to the attention of the 
adult part of his audience, while the children were sitting in a 
state of apathy, playing with their fingers, and eagerly wishing 
to be gone. Such a conduct is quite preposterous, and tends to 
frustrate the great object of such institutions. No address to 
young people should be continued beyond five or ten minutes at 
a time, unless the subject be extremely interesting and the atten- 
tion exclusively fixed upon it. The method of teaching by Inter- 
rogatories, and interspersing occasional remarks on the different 
topics, will be found in general the best mode for keeping alive 
the attention of the young. 

Sabbath schools should not be considered as confined to the 
children of the poor, or of those who are inattentive to the spiritual 
interests of their offspring, but as embracing the instruction of all 
classes of society. It is indeed a duty, from which no parent can 
be exempted, to impart instruction to his children in the principles 
of religion, and " to train them up in the nurture and admonition 
of the Lord." But, without neglecting this duty in private, their 
children might derive important additional instruction by attend- 
ing a public religious seminary. If the system of religious in- 
struction were once improved, and carried to that pitch of perfec- 
tion of which it is susceptible ; and, if that superior intelligence 
and wisdom, which we hope ere long to see displayed in the de- 
partment of religion, were to pervade all the details of juvenile 
instruction, I haVe no hesitation in asserting that the children of 
the most learned and intelligent of the community would derive 



GENERAL REMARKS ON SABBATH SCHOOLS. 307 

much advantage from attending such seminaries of instruction. 
Nor should such seminaries be confined to young persons under 
12 or 14 years of age, as they too frequently are; but schools 
should be organised, adapted to persons from the age of 15 to 
the age of 20, and upwards, in which they may be trained in the 
higher branches of knowledge connected with religion, and thus 
be enabled to take more expansive views of the revelations of 
Heaven, that they may be " thoroughly furnished for the per- 
formance of every good work." For the instruction and super- 
intendence of such schools, the study of those departments of 
sacred knowledge referred to above, will be found an indispensable 
qualification. In order that properly qualified teachers may be 
obtained for such seminaries, colleges or academies might be es- 
tablished for their instruction. Evening lectures on the different 
branches of sacred knowledge and popular science, accompanied 
with various other mental exercises, might be delivered two or 
three times every week, to which all might have access who wish 
to devote themselves to the religious instruction of the young. 
Various discussions might likewise be entered into relative to the 
best modes of communicating knowledge and impressing divine 
truths upon the heart; m\A experiments in the art of instruction 
might be occasionally tried, by collecting a number of children 
for this purpose, and observing the effects which different in- 
structors and different modes of teaching produce upon their 
affections and understandings. In the meantime, before such 
systems of instruction be established, it might be expedient for 
the teachers of Sabbath schools in large towns, to meet once a 
week or once a fortnight for mutual instruction, and for discussing 
the various subjects connected with their official duties. A library 
might be formed of the best books connected with Sacred History, 
Theology, and general information, to which each of them might 
have access for the purpose of private study. By such means 
the knowledge of our teachers would be enlarged, their interest 
in carrying forward improvements kept alive, and the system of 
religious instruction would gradually approximate towards per- 
fection. To guide the teacher in his selection of books on Sacred 
Literature, he may be referred to the Rev. E. Bickersteth's 
" Christian Student," which contains lists of books in the various 
departments connected with the study of Divine revelation, inter- 
spersed with a variety of judicious remarks.* 

* Sabbath school teachers will derive much useful instruction from the 
writings of Mr. Jacob Abbott, Principal of the Mount Vernon School, Bos- 
ton, particularly his " Young Christian," and " The Teacher, or Moral In- 



308 SCHOOLS FOR YOUNG MEN. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Schools for Young Persons, from the age of fourteen to the age of 
twenty and upwards. 

It is one of the grand defects of our present system of educa- 
tion, that it is considered as terminating about the period when 
our youth arrive at the age of fourteen or fifteen years. Prior to 
this period, little more than the rudiments of knowledge can be 
communicated, even where education is conducted on an intel- 
lectual plan. The whole period of our existence should be con- 
sidered as the course of our education ; and there is no portion 
of human life of more importance in this respect than that which 
intervenes between the age of fourteen and the age of twenty. 
At this period, the rational powers are advancing towards per- 
fection, and are capable of acquiring clear and expansive views 
both of scientific truths and of scriptural doctrines. At the same 
time the moral powers and propensities are beginning to arrange 
themselves on the side either of virtue or of vice ; and, in the 
great majority of instances, the character of the future man 
depends on the intellectual views and the moral habits which are 
then formed. It is therefore a matter of the utmost importance, 
that the human mind, at this interesting period, should be properly 
directed as to its views of truth and of duty, and guarded against 
the temptations and allurements which might turn it aside from 
the paths of rectitude. It is somewhat unaccountable, that this 
important period in the life of man — so pregnant with blessings 
or curses to society — should have been almost overlooked in the 
view of the Christian philanthropist, and that no specific arrange- 
ments have been made to promote moral and intellectual instruc- 
tion during its continuance. About the age of fiileen the greater 
part of those who have enjoyed a common education are employed 
as apprentices or servants. At this period, new passions begin 
to operate, and new pursuits engage their attention. They mingle 
with new associates, are frequently exposed to vicious indulgences, 
and, in many instances, are set free from the restraints of their 
parents and guardians. If, in such circumstances, no rational or 



flucnces effiployed for the Instruction of the Young." He should also peruse 
" The Mother at Home," and other works of the Rev. John S. C . Abbott, 
of Worcester, America, formerly recommended. In the process of teaching, 
the books published by Mr. Gall, on the " licsson System," will frequently 
be found of great utility. But, it ought never to be forgotten, that no plans 
we may adopt, and no books, however good in themselves, can be a substi- 
tute for the scriptural knowledge and general information of the teacher. 



SUBJECTS OF STUDY. 309 

religious instruction is regularly imparted, they will be apt, as too 
frequently happens, to be led away by their vicious companions, 
and their sensual appetites, into the paths of folly and intemper- 
ance. Hence the propriety of establishing institutions, and 
arranging a system of instruction adapted to the wants and the 
circumstances of this interesting portion of our population. 

The subjects to which the attention of this class of young per- 
sons should be directed might be such as the following : — 1. The 
Physical sciences, as Geography, Astronomy, Natural History, 
Experimental Philosophy, and other subjects more particularly 
noticed in the preceding pages. The illustration of these subjects 
might occupy a wider range, and the topics connected with them 
be more fully discussed than in the primary schools to which I 
have already adverted. — 2. Zo^ic, or the art of reasoning. This 
subject might be treated in a popular manner, and the various 
kinds of reasoning and of sophisms illustrated from the sciences, 
historical facts, the phenomena of nature, and the conduct of men 
in general society. One great object in such discussions should 
be, to teach the pupils to habituate themselves to clear ideas and 
conclusive reasonings on every subject— and to expose the false 
principles and sophistical reasonings by which princes, statesmen, 
clergymen, and others, have supported tyranny, slavery, oppres- 
sion, and abuses of every description in church and state, and by 
which deists and sceptics have attempted to undermine the fabric 
of Christianity. If properly illustrated, there are few subjects 
more important than this to young men when entering on the 
active scenes of life. But we have no system of logic, with which 
I am acquainted, in which the subject is treated in the popular 
and practical manner to which I allude. — 3. Practical Mecha- 
nics and the useful arts — including discussions on the various 
applications of steam — rail-roads, canals, and machinery of dif- 
ferent kinds — the processes connected with the different arts, the 
improvements of which they are susceptible, and the experiments 
that require to be tried in order to carry them to perfection. — 
4. Ethics, or a system of moral philosophy founded on the prin- 
ciples and precepts of Revelation — or, in other words, a system 
of practical Christianity, explaining the duties incumbent upon 
men in the various relations of life, and illustrating them from the 
facts connected with the scenes of history and of common life. 
In the discussion of this subject, the following topics, among 
others, would require to be particularly illustrated : — The true 
foundation of moral action, or the principles which form the basis 
of the moral order of the universe — the laws which God has pro- 
mulgated in his word for the regulation of human conduct — the 



310 SUBJECTS OP STUDY. 

reasonableness of these laws, and their indispensable necessity 
and obligation — the happiness to which the observance of them 
uniformly leads — the misery which is necessarily consequent on 
their violation — and the confusion which would arise throughout 
every part of the social system were these laws reversed or uni- 
versally violated. The history of all nations, both savage and 
civilized — the facts related in the history of the Bible — the narra- 
tives of voyagers and travellers — and the scenes of public and 
domestic society, — would furnish appropriate illustrations of such 
topics. — 5. The Evidences of Christianity — illustrations of Sa- 
cred History and Geography — explanations of Scripture diffi- 
culties, and of the accomplishment of prophecies — elucidations of 
Christian facts, doctrines, and precepts — and other topics con- 
nected with the great objects of religion and the realities of an- 
other world, — should hold a prominent place among all the other 
departments of instruction. Such instructions are essentially 
requisite, if we wish to see mankind rising in the scale of intel- 
lectual and religious improvement, and if we wish to behold vice 
and intemperance banished from our streets, and harmony and 
happiness throughout every department of the moral world. 

Such subjects as the above might be varied according to cir- 
cumstances, and elucidated, in more or less detail, accoi Jing to 
the ages, capacities, or pursuits of the pupils; but, in every 
instance, the chief portion of instruction should have a particular 
bearing on their moral and religious improvement. Three or four 
days in the week, from eight to half-past nine o'clock in the even- 
ing, might be devoted to such studies and exercises, — and the 
same apartments which are used for the instruction of the juni'»r 
classes might serve as places of meeting for engaging in the dis- 
cussions to which I allude, so that no additional expense would be 
requisite for such accommodations. Every arrangement in such 
seminaries should be adapted to the conveniency of apprentices, 
journeymen, shopkeepers, clerks, labourers, and all others who 
are employed in active labour, or other professional duties, during 
the day ; — at the same time, persons of every rank and of every 
age may be invited, when public discussions take place, or public 
lectures are delivered. Similar institutions might be established 
for the improvement of the female sex, in which instructions in 
natural history, logic, morality and religion, similar to those sug. 
gested above, might be imparted, together with all those useful 
and ornamental branches of knowledge which are peculiarly 
adapted to the stations and relations they occupy in society. In 
certain cases, where public lectures on physical or moral subjects 
are delivered, arrangements might be made for the attendance of 



QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. 311 

persons of both sexes, which, under certain regulations, would 
tend to enliven the scenes of instruction. 

Such institutions have never yet been established, so far as I 
know, in any part of the civilized world ; nor can we hope for 
their establishment, till the influence of avarice be in some mea- 
sure undermined — till our shops and manufactories be shut up at 
more early hours than they now are, and till our labourers, shop- 
keepers, and artisans, have more leisure to devote to the cultiva- 
tion of their moral and mental powers. Many of our manufac- 
tories are kept open till between the hours of eight and nine in the 
evening ; and our grocery stores, and other shops, till near the 
hour of midnight; so that, from seven in the morning till near 
eleven at night, our apprentices have scarcely two hours of lei- 
sure, even for their meals. Such long hours of labour, during 
which many of the working classes are obliged to toil from day 
to day, tend not only to retard the progress of the human mind, 
but to reduce mankind to a species of slaves, or mere animal ma- 
chines ; leaving them scarcely any reasonable portion of their 
existence, either for cultivating their intellects, or for preparing 
for the world to come. On this subject I shall afterwards offer a 
few remarks. 



CHAPTER X. 
Qualifications of Teachers, and Seminaries for their Instruction, 

To all that is stated in the preceding pages, it will likely be 
objected, that we have ^ew teachers possessed of the talent and 
information requisite to carry the plans I have proposed into effect. 
It is indeed much to be regretted, that an opinion has long pre- 
vailed, that the most slender qualifications are sufficient for a 
teacher, and that little preparation is requisite for conducting a 
common school. If a man is unfortunate in trade, enfeebled^in 
body, or disinclined to manual labour, it is considered that he may 
still be sufficiently qualified for a teacher, afler having spent four 
or five months at a seminary of education. If he can read his 
mot her- tongue, write a good text-hand, and has acquired a toler- 
able knowledge of arithmetic and book-keeping, he is considered 
as fully warranted to set up the trade of a teacher; and if in addi- 
tion to these he has acquired some knowledge of Latin and French, 
he is viewed as moving in the higher rank of instructors. Such 
opinions, indeed, are now beginning to be reckoned as somewhat 
antiquated, and many of our teachers are rapidly rising in the 
scale of intelligence ; but it is, at the same time, a fact, that many 



312 DEFICIENCIES OF INSTRUCTORS. 

of our parochial and other schoolmasters are possessed of few 
qualifications besides those now stated. On the Continent, till 
lately, the office of schoolmaster, in country villages, was consid- 
ered one of the lowest employments in society. Even in Prussia, 
about the middle of the last century, "All that was required of 
their schoolmasters, who were chiefly mechanics, was, to be able 
to read, say the catechism, sing tolerably a few well-known psalm- 
tunes, and to write and cipher a little. Numbers of shepherds, 
employed in summer time in keeping sheep, during winter assume 
the office of teachers of youth. The nobility used generally to 
bestow the place of schoolmaster (if it was at their disposal) on 
their valets or grooms, as a reward for past services."* In many 
instances the offices of village barber, fiddler, and schoolmaster, 
were conjoined in the same person. 

It may be affirmed, without the least hesitation, that there is no 
office in general society more honourable and important than that 
of an instructor of the young, and none on which the present and 
future happiness of the human race so much depends. But, in 
consequence of the circumstances now stated, the pffice has been 
rendered inefficient for the great purposes of human improvement, 
and the teacher himself degraded from that rank which he ought 
to hold in the scale of society. It is not a little unaccountable, 
that, in this country, no seminaries have ever yet been established 
for training young men for the office of teachers, so that the im- 
portant ends intended by a system of education may be fully 
accomplished. A watchmaker, a smith, a mason, a carpenter, or 
a wcavpr, serves an apprenticeship of from four to seven years, 
before he is considered qualified to exercise his profession. A 
clergyman generally undergoes a course of training for eight or 
nine years, before he is licensed to perform the functions of the 
sacred ministry. Even a menial servant, a stable-boy, a cook, 
or a laundry-maid, must devote a certain portion of time and 
attention before they are considered as qualified for such occupa- 
tions. But the office of an instructor of youth is frequently 
assumed at random. If a man imagines he can execute such an 
office, and publishes an advertisement of his intention, he is 
believed to be qualified for what he undertakes, although, per- 
haps, he has never applied his mind to investigate the principles 
on which instruction should be communicated, nor the objects 
which education should embrace. Such an anomaly in the state 
of civilized society, in regard to a matter of such vital importance, 
is a disgrace to the character of an enlightened age, and ought 



Report of the Primary Normal School at Potsdam, by F. L. G. Striez. 



PRECEPTORAL 'COLLEGES FOR TEACHERS. 313 

no longer to exist. If we had right views of all the important 
objects which a system of moral and intellectual education should 
embrace, and its extensive effects upon all ranks of society, in 
relation bolli to the present and the future world, we should at 
once admit, that an instructor of youth should be a man possessed 
of almost universal knowledge, conjoined with a high degree of 
moral probity and fervent piety. 

How then, it may be asked, are we to proceed in elevating the 
teachers in the scale of intelligence, and thus laying a sure basis 
for an efficient education ? The first arrangement, which is obvi- 
ously requisite, is to establish seminaries or colleges for their 
instruction^ In these Preceptoral Colleges, as they might be 
called, such branches as the following might be taught. — 1. 
Arithmetic, Drawing, Algebra, and the Mathematical sciences, 
particularly » those which are more immediately applicable to prac- 
tical purposes. — 2. Grammar, Logic, History, and Christian 
morals. — 3. Natural History, Natural Philosophy, Geography, 
Astronomy, Chemistry, Physiology, and Vocal and Instrumental 
Music. — 4. Natural Theology, the Evidences of Christianity, 
Sacred History, Christian doctrines and duties. — To teach these 
sciences with effect, three or four Professors would be required. 
They should be taught, not merely by lectures, but by regular 
examinations and numerous exercises connected with the several 
topics of discussion ; and, where the subjects admit of it, by expe- 
rimental illustrations. The course should be as popular in its 
plan and illustrations as the nature of the subjects treated of will 
admit, and all the discussions should, if possible, be made to bear 
upon matters of practical utility. Of course, all abstract meta- 
physical disquisitions, intricate mathematical questions and theo- 
rems which are more curious than useful, and all theological 
speculations respecting mysteries and questions which are beyond 
the reach of the human faculties to resolve — should be carefully 
avoided. The great object of these instructions should be, not to 
make the students profound mathematicians, philosophers, or 
divines — but to communicate to them a clear and comprehensive 
view of all those subjects of a practical nature which are level to 
the comprehension of the bulk of mankind, which may present to 
them objects of delightful contemplation, and which may have a 
bearing on their present and future happiness. In connection 
with these subjects, instructions and exercises should be given in 
the art of communicating knowledge, and on the various modes 
which may be employed to excite the attention, and to convey 
clear and well-defined ideas to the understandings of the young. 
The plan and routine of teaching, the various evolutions requisite 

27 



314 rRECEPTORAL COLLEGES FOR TEACHERS. 

for preserving order in a school, the divisions of time, the arrange- 
ment of classes, the moral treatment of the youthful mind, the 
punishment of olTences, the best methods of impressing upon the 
heart the truths of religion and the rules of morality, the method 
of using the different class-books, and every thing else which has 
a relation to moral and intellectual tuition — should be explained 
and illustrated in minute detail. 

For the purpose of exercising the students in the practical ap- 
plication of these instructions, tico schools should be connected 
with every Preceptoral College — one for the primary and the 
other for the higher branches of education. Over these schools 
the professors, though not constant or regular teachers, should be 
mvested with a special superintendence and control. Under their 
direction, each student, in turn, should be appointed to engage in 
the business of instruction, so as to reduce to practice the philoso- 
phy of teaching. Remarks on the manner in which he executes 
his office, may be made in private, and hints by which he may be 
enabled to correct any of the errors or defects into which he may 
have fallen. These remarks should have a reference not only to 
the mode of communicating knowledge^ but likewise to the moral 
dispositions displayed towards the children, and the treatment 
they receive. While a proper degree of respect and authority is 
maintained, the young teacher should be taught to address his 
pupils in the language of kindness and affection, as a father does 
his children, and to avoid every thing in his manner that has the 
appearance of being boisterous or domineering. Besides being 
occasionally employed in scholastic teaching, the students should 
be frequently exercised in the art of composition, and, at certain 
distant intervals, in delivering lectures of their own composition, 
to the rest of the students, on any physical or moral subject they 
may cHoose to select. This practice would tend to prepare them 
for becoming public lecturers on the different branches of useful 
knowledge, in the districts where they might afterwards be ap- 
pointed as teachers. All the public exercises of the students, 
both in learning and in teaching, should be commenced with 
prayer, and a recognition of the superintendence and agency of 
the Divine Being, and the business of the day concluded in the 
same manner — a practice which, in this country, has almost fallen 
into disuse, especially in those seminaries devoted to the promo- 
tion of a fashionable education. In short, the whole system 
should be considered as chiefly of a moral and religious nature — 
having for its main and ultimate object, not merely the com- 
munication of literary and scientific knowledge, but the promo- 
tion of moral order and happiness among mankind, and their 



EXAMINATIONS OP TEACHERS. 315 

preparation for the felicities and employments of the world to 
come. Such a noble object can only be obtained by impressing 
such views on the minds of the rising teachers, and training them 
up to habits of universal benevolence and of Christian piety and 
devotion, that, in their turn, they may communicate the same 
habits, feelings, and affections, to young immortals over whose 
instructions they may be afterwards called to preside. 

Every candidate for the office of schoolmaster, previous to be- 
ing received into such a college or seminary, should be strictly 
examined as to his mental powers and natural capacity for ac- 
quiring and communicating knowledge, his moral principles and 
conduct, and his leading motives and aims in wishing to devote 
himself to the office of an instructor. It should be understood 
that he has previously acquired the elements of a common edu- 
cation — can read his native language with some degree of cor- 
rectness, can write a tolerably good hand, and has acquired a 
knowledge of the leading rules of arithmetic. For it would be 
inexpedient to spend much time in s^nch elementary instruction, 
except in the higher departments of Arithmetic, and in demon- 
strating its fundamental rules. No candidate should be under 
eighteen or above thirty years of age. From eighteen to twenty- 
four would, perhaps, be the most eligible period for admission. 
The course should continue at least three years; and if the stu- 
dent can afford the time and expense, it may be expedient to ex- 
tend it to four years. About eight or nine hours every day 
might be employed in public and private studies — and ten months 
every y'^ar, allowing a vacation of a month about midsummer, 
and another of the same length about Christmas. During the 
period now specified, under the direction of zealous and enlighten- 
ed professors, a far greater portion of substantial and practical 
knowledge might be accumulated than is generally acquired at 
our universities, in a course of instruction extending to more than 
eight years. Examinations should take place, at least once 
a-week, to ascertain the progress made by every student, and the 
degree of attention he bestows on the several branches of study. 
After having passed through the usual course of instruction, a 
more minute and extensive examination should be appointed of all 
the candidates for the office of schoolmaster, on all the branches 
of instruction, both theoretical and practical, to which their at- 
tention had been directed. Those who are approved should re- 
ceive a certificate, or license, signed by all the professors, speci- 
fying the progress they have made, and their qualifications for 
the art of teaching — which certificate should be considered as a 
sufficient guarantee to secure their admission as teachers into any 



316 INFANT SCHOOL TEACHERS. 

vacant schools for which they may apply. Those who are found 

deficient in qualifications may be recommended to remain another 

year, or other period, to revise their studies. The teachers who 

had been inHucted into office, previous to the arrangements now 

supposed, should be enjoined, or at least requested, to attend two 

months every year at the Preceptoral College for three or four 

years in succession, in order to finish their education in all those 

branches which are considered as necessary for an accomplished 

instructor. 

The proper training of teachers lies at the very foundation of 

a moral and intellectual system of education ; and no class of men 

but those whose minds are furnished with a large stock of general 

• • • 
knowledge are capable of carrying it into effect. It may be laid 

down as a general principle, that no man can communicate to 
others knowledge of which he himself is not possessed ; and con- 
sequently, whatever knowledge it may be judged necessary to 
impart to the great mass of society, must previously exist in the 
minds of those who are appointed to instruct them. Even the 
lowest class of schools, st-fch as infant schools, and the details of 
primary instruction, require men of general knowledge as super- 
intendents and teachers. For it requires more care and attention, 
more experience and sagacity, and a more intimate acquaintance 
with the principles of human nature, to direct the opening intellect 
in its first excursions in the path of knowledge, than to impart 
to it instructions respecting any particular science in after-life. 
An infant-school teacher, for example, should be intimately ac- 
quainted with the facts of sacred history, with general history, 
with physical and geometrical science, with the phenomena of 
nature, and the processes of the arts, with human nature in its 
different aspects, and with the scenes of domestic life. For, it is 
from these sources that he is to derive those facts, exhibitions, de- 
scriptions, and illustrations, which are requisite to excite the at- 
tention, to interest the affections, and to gratify the curiosity of 
the infant mind. He must tell them stories borrowed from sacred 
and civil history — he must describe the appearances of nature — 
he must perform entertaining experiments — he must tell them of 
other countries, and the manners of their inhabitants — he must 
describe the conduct of bad children and of good, and have a 
story at hand to illustrate his descriptions. He must vary all his 
descriptions^ experiments, and anecdotes, as much as possible, so 
that new scenes and subjects may be gradually opening on their 
view, to prevent that satiety which a frequent repetition of the 
same topics would necessarily produce. It is evident, then, that 



INFANT SCHOOL TEACHERS. 317 

no one but a person possessed of extensive knowledge is qualified 
fully to accomplish such objects. 

It is an egregious mistake to imagine, that the Imowledge of a 
plan of teaching, or of the mere routine of a system of educa- 
tion, is all that is requisite for conducting the instruction of chil- 
dren. This is an error which of late has been too frequently 
acted upon, and which threatens to strike at the foundation of 
many of our infant schools. A young man, or a young lady, who 
has acquired only the elements of a common education, and who 
has never been in the practice of teaching in any seminary, is 
sent for six weeks to an infant school, to learn the system^ and to 
witness its movements ; after which, they are considered as 
properly qualified, and inducted as superintendents of infant semi- 
naries, without much attention being paid to the range of informa- 
tion they possess. I am aware, indeed, that several worthy per- 
sons of this description have conducted these institutions with 
considerable energy and success, especially when they entered 
with vigour into the spirit of their office, and felt ardent desires 
for their own further improvement, ^^ut it would be dangerous 
to the existence and utility of such institutions to recognise such 
a practice as a general rule, — although in their first establishment, 
necessity compelled their patrons to select as teachers, pious and 
discreet persons, however deficient in general information. For 
the reasons hinted at above, I am clearly of opinion, that an in- 
fant school teacher should be instructed in all the branches of 
knowledge to which I have already referred as requisite for other 
instructors ; and on this ground chiefly I rest my hopes of the 
permanency and efficiency of the system of infant training which 
has been lately introduced. In short, if the world is ever to be 
thoroughly enlightened and regenerated — if men of all nations 
and of all ranks are to be raised to the dignity of their moral 
and intellectual natures, and fitted for " glory and immortality," 
it is essentially requisite that teachers of every description, 
whether superintending infant, parochial, or Sabbath schools, or 
any other seminaries, be men of decided piety, of the highest 
moral attainments, and possessed of as large a measure of useful 
knowledge as mortals can acquire. And, although we may not 
be able to procure persons endowed with such high qualifications 
for another generation or two, yet nothing short of such an ele- 
vated standard should be ultimately kept in view. Such charac- 
ters, of course, would occupy a rank and station in society far 
more respectable and elevated than they have ever yet attained, 
and be looked up to as the directors of the intellectual and moral 
faculties, and the best friends and benefactors of the human race. 

27* 



318 PRUSSIAN PRECEPTOR AL COLLEGES. 

Four preceptoral colleges, at least, would require to be estab- 
lished in Scotland, and about six times that number in England, 
for the training of teachers. Much expense would not be requi- 
site in their erection, excepting what behoved to be laid out in the 
purchase of a library, a museum, and a philosophical apparatus ; 
which articles would be indispensable in such a seminary, and the 
more extensive the better. In the meantime, as a temporary ex- 
pedient, arrangements might be made for establishing such a 
system of instruction in the different universities and colleges 
which already exist ; as tjie same class-rooms presently used for 
the different departments of academical instruction, might, with- 
out much inconvenience, at separate hours, be devoted to the 
system of instruction now proposed. The principal country in 
wdiich such seminaries have yet been established, is the Kingdom 
of Prussia, where they are designated by the name of Normal 
Schools. In 1831 there were thirty-three of these schools in full 
operation, containing from 40 to 100 pupils ; that is one Normal 
school for every 385,660 souls ; the population of Prussia ac- 
cording to the latest cei:^us, being 12,726,823. From these 
seminaries are furnishec' -almost all the masters of the public 
schools, elementary and intermediate, in the kingdom. The an- 
nual expense of these establishments is 110,553 thalers, or 
£16,583, of which the state contributes ^13,260. M. Victor 
Cousin, in his voluminous and somewhat tedious *' Report on the 
state of public instruction in Prussia," states a variety of minute 
details in reference to the economy and regulations of these 
schools, but affords us no clear idea of the manner in which the 
different branches of knowledge are taught to those who arc 
intended to be the future teachers of primary and burghal 
schools. Although these institutions are, doubtless, the most re- 
spectable and efficient that have hitherto been established in any 
country, yet the range of instruction is not so extensive as that 
to which I have alluded, nor is the office of a teacher placed in 
that elevated rank which it ought to hold in society. Teachers 
in Prussia are still considered as belonging to a grade inferior to 
that of ministers of the gospel, and are placed partly under their 
superintendence. But if teachers were once endowed with all 
the knowledge and qualifications to which I have adverted, they 
ought to be regarded as moving in a station equal to that of the 
most dignified clergyman. 



NUMBER or SCHOOLS. 319 

CHAPTER XI. 

On the Practicability of Establishing Seminaries for 
Intellectual Education, 

To any new proposals for the improvement of society, however 
just or rational, numerous objections from different quarters are 
generally started. Difficulties are magnified into impossibih'ties, 
and a thousand prejudices are mustered up against innovations on 
established practices, and in favour of existing institutions. In 
attempting to establish such seminaries as now proposed, the 
most formidable objection would be founded on the difficulty of 
obtaining pecuniary resources adequate to their erection and en- 
dowment ; and, it is frankly admitted, that a very large sum of 
money, reckoned not by thousands, but by millions of pounds, 
would be requisite for their establishment and support. A rude 
idea of the requisite expenditure will perhaps be conveyed by the 
following statements. 

It may be assumed as a fact, that the number of children in 
any State, from the age of two to the age of fifteen years, is about 
cne-thii'd of the whole population ; at least this proportion cannot 
be materially difl^erent from the truth. We find that in the States 
of Massachusetts, Maine, and Connecticut, North America, there 
Is one out of every four of the population attending a seminary 
of instruction. In the State of New York, the proportion of pupils 
to the whole population is as 1 to 3.9, a greater proportion than 
is to be found in any other country of the civilized world. The 
ages of the children attending these schools is, in all probability, 
from four or five to fifteen or sixteen years ; for I presume that 
the children attending infant schools are not included in this 
enumeration. But although they were, it is well known that in- 
fant schools have not yet been multiplied to such an extent as to 
furnish instruction for one-fifth of the children who would require 
to attend these institutions. We may therefore fix on one-third 
as the proportion of the population that requires to be instructed 
at infant schools, and the higher seminaries of education. This 
position being assumed, the number of schools required in any 
city or country may be at once determined. Suppose, for exam- 
ple, we fix on a town of a medium size, such as Dundee, we can 
easily ascertain the number of seminaries requisite for the in- 
struction of its juvenile inhabitants. The population of Dundee 
is about 48,000 ; the one-third of which is 16,000, or the number 
of individuals that require instruction. Suppose 80 scholars, at 
an average, to attend each school, there would require to be no 



320 NUMBER OP SCHOOLS. 

less than 200 seminaries erected to supply adequate instruction 
for such a town. Of these, 50 would be requisite for infant in- 
struction, and 150 for the instruction of children from the ase of 
six to the age of fifteen, in the higher branches of education speci- 
fied in the preceding part of this work. According to a statement 
made in Parliament, by Mr. Colquhoun, in June, 1834, there is 
only one-ffteenth of the population of this town at present receiv- 
ing the rudiments of a common education ; so that, instead of 
16,000 receiving instruction, there are only 3200, and instead of 
200 schools, averaging 80 children in each, there are only 40 
schools* on an average, containing the same number, which is 
only one-ffth of the number of schools which require to be 
established. In order to supply Dundee icith proper education, 
a large building has lately been erected at an expense of about 
£10,000, which is called " The Dundee Seminaries,^'' where 
about 200 or 300 children receive education. The expense was 
supplied partly by subscriptions, and partly by funds belonging 
to the town ; and the whole of this sum has been expended mere- 
ly to aflford accomodation for the children of 100 or 150 genteel 
families ! while the great mass of the population has been entirely 
overlooked. There is no law against the children of the middling 
and lower classes attending that seminary ; but the fees demanded 
amount, in their case, to an absolute prohibition. With the same 
sum of money, ten commodious seminaries, capable of containing 
accommodation for 200 pupils each, or 2000 in all, might have 
been established. It has never yet been stated to the public, on 
what principle education is to be conducted in these seminaries — 
whether it is to be conducted on the old system, or whether a plan 
of intellectual instruction is to be prosecuted — a most important 
matter, which ought to have been determined before a stone of 
the building was laid, or even before a plan of it was selected. 
For the plan and arrangements of any building intended for in- 
tellectual instruction ought to be materially different from those 
of others, and to have conveniences and arrangements peculiar to 
itself. But the erection of an expensive and splendid building, 
as an ornament to a commercial town, seems to have been an 
object of far greater importance in the view of the Committee of 
Education, than the arrangement of an efficient plan of moral and 
intellectual tuition. Such are the principles and views of many 
in this country who profess to be the patrons of education I 

Let us now consider the number of seminaries which the whole 

* There is a greater number of schools in Dundee than the number here 
stated, but the average attendance of scholars is only 43 in each school. 



EXPENSE OP ESTABLISHING SEMINARIES. 321 

of Scotland would require. The population of Scotland, accord- 
ing to the census of 1831, is nearly 2,400,000, the one-third of 
which is 800,000. Supposing, as before, 80 children at an aver- 
age in every school, there would be no less than 10,000 schools 
required for the efficient instruction of all the youth from two to 
fifteen years of age — of these 2500 ^ould be infant schools. Ac- 
cording to Mr. Colquhoun's statement, " the number of parishes 
in Scotland is 907, and the parochial schools of Scotland at this 
moment, 1005 ;" so that, in Scotland it would be requisite to 
establish ten times the number of schools that presently exist, in 
order to the efficient instruction of the whole population. On the 
supposition that there are about 1000 private schools, besides the 
parochial, or two schools, at an average, for every parish, there 
would still be required 8000 additional schools, or jive times the 
number presently existing. Taking the population of England 
at 14,000,000, the number of children to be educated will be 
4,666,666, and the number of schools, allowing 80 for each, 
58,333, or nearly six times the number of schools required for 
Scotland ; so that in the whole island of Great Britain there would 
require to be established sixty-eight thousand three hundred and 
thirty-three schools.* 

Let us now consider the expenses which would be incurred in 
the erection of such schools. Estimating the expense of each 
school at £1000, that is, about £700 for the building and play- 
ground, and £300 for maps, views, library, apparatus, museum, 
&c. the neat cost of the schools for Scotland would be ten millions 
sterling. But, if infant schools, wherever they are required, were 
to be connected with the other schools, so as to be under the same 
roof, the former on the ground flat and the latter on the upper, — 
a building consisting of two stories, with suitable accomodation 
for both departments, could, I presume, be erected for the sum of 
£700. In this case, the number of erections would be reduced 
to 7500 ; and the whole expense would amount to £7,500,000. 
On the same plan, the number of school-houses required for Eng- 
land would be reduced to 43,750, and the expense would be 
£43,750,000 ; that is, about ffty-one millions for the whole of 
Great Britain. If we suppose, what is not improbable, that the 
number of infant schools, instead of bearing a proportion to the 
other schools as one to three, as here supposed, would require to 
bear a proportion of one to two, or half the number of the other 
schools, the number of school-houses would be reduced to 6666 

* On the same data, the number of schools requii'cd for the United States 
of America would be above 54,000. 



322 NECESSITY OP PHILANTHROPIC EXERTION. 

for Scotland, and the expense to £6,666,000 ; and for England, 
to 38,889 schools, and the expense to £38,889,000 ; so that the 
whole amount of expenditure for both divisions of the island 
would be about 45^ millions. 

This will appear, in the eyes of many, a most prodigious sum 
— a sum which we can never hope to realize. It is admitted that 
the sum is great ; but nothing in proportion to the magnitude and 
importance of the object intended to be accomplished — which 
is nothing less than to raise the great mass of our population 
from degradation and misery — to irradiate their minds with 
knowledge — to inspire them with moral principle and holy affec- 
tions — to render them happy in this world — and to prepare them 
for the noble enjoyments of the life to come ; — in short, to strike 
at the foundation of every moral evil — to counteract the princi- 
ples of vice and criminality of every kind — and to make the 
moral world, in all its departments, move onward in harmony 
and order. Surely, if such objects could be accomplished, we 
need not grudge the expenditure even of a hundred millions of 
pounds. And such objects will never be accomplished, nor will 
the moral world be ever thoroughly improved, till such a system 
of moral and mental tuition as we have faintly sketched, be uni- 
versally established. We sometimes talk about the approaching 
Millennium, and look forward to it as if it were to be introduced 
by some astonishing miracle, similar to that which caused the 
chaotic mass at the Mosaic creation to be enlightened, and reduced 
to beauty and order. But such views are evidently fallacious, and 
contrary to what we know of the general plan and tenor of the 
Divine government ; and they have no other tendency but to un- 
nerve our energies, and to damp our exertions in the cause of 
human improvement. Throughout the whole range of the Divine 
dispensations recorded in Scripture, we can point out no miracle 
that was ever performed, where the operation of the established 
laws of nature, and the ordinary powers of human agents, were 
adequate to accomplish the end intended. Man, under the present 
dispensation, is " a worker together with God," — in accomplish- 
ing his purposes ; and, under the agency of that Almighty Spirit 
which "moved upon the face of the waters" at the first creation, 
is able to accomplish all that is predicted respecting the Millen- 
nium, — provided his rebellious will were subdued, and his moral 
energies thoroughly directed to this grand object. It is owing to 
the sin and rebellion of man that this world has undergone such 
a melancholy derangement, both in its physical and moral aspect ; 
and it will be by the moral and mental energies of man, when pro- 
perly directed by the Divine Spirit, that the chaotic mass of the 



LIBERALITY UNDER THE JEWISH ECONOMY. 323 

moral world will be reduced to harmony and order, and the 
wastes and barren deserts of the physical world adorned with 
fertility and rural and architectural beauty, so that " the wilder- 
ness and the solitary place will rejoice and blossom as the rose." 
It is one chief ingredient in the happiness of man, and an honour 
conferred on him, that he is selected as an agent, under God, for 
bringing about such a glorious consummation ; and there is no 
man that ought to assume the name of a Christian, who is not 
ready to exert his activities, and to sacrifice a considerable por- 
tion of his wealth in this service. 

Under the Old Testament economy, the pious Jews brought 
forward to the service of God their tithes and free-will offerings, 
their bullocks and rams, and " the first fruits of their increase." 
When Solomon had dedicated the temple, he offered a sacrifice 
of 22,000 oxen, and of 120,000 sheep; and when Hezekiah set 
himself to purify the worship of God, and to promote reformation 
in Israel, he gave to the congregation a thousand bullocks, and 
seven thousand sheep;; — the princes gave a thousand bullocks and 
ten thousand sheep — and the common people " brought in abun- 
dance, the first fruits of corn, wine, and oil, and honey ; and of all 
the increase of the field, the tithe of all things brought they in 
abundantly, and laid them in heaps upon heaps," for four months 
in succession, so that Hezekiah was astonished at the voluntary 
liberality of the people, " and blessed the Lord and his people 
Israel." When the tabernacle in the wilderness was about to be 
reared, " both men and women, as many as were willing-hearted, 
brought bracelets and ear-rings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels 
of gold ; and every man that offered, offered an offering of gold 
unto the Lord. Every man with whom was found blue and pur- 
ple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of 
rams, and badgers' skins, brought them. Every one that had 
silver and brass and shittim-wood for any work of service, brought 
them. All the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their 
hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue and 
purple, and scarlet, and of fine linen. And the rulers brought 
onyx stones, and stones to be set, for the ephod and for the breast- 
plate. Every man and woman brought a willing offering to the 
Lord, till they had much more than enough for the service of the 
work which the Lord commanded to make."* These offerings 
were, doubtless, emblematical of the exertions which would be 
made, and of the costly offerings which would be brought forward 
for rearing the fabric of the New Testament church. But what 

* See Exod. xxxv. 21 — 30, &c. — 2 Chron. vii. 5, xxx. 24, and xxx. 5 — 8. 



324 ENORMOUS SUMS EXPENDED IN WAB. 

are all the offerings which have been hitherto received for this 
purpose, compared with the offerings now stated, or with what is 
requisite to accomplish this grand object ! One of the offerings 
above stated as made by Solomon is equivalent to more than five 
hundred thousand pounds of British money, which is more than 
the amount of the funds of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
and all its auxiliaries, during the first ten years of their operation. 
Christians do not seem to have yet recognised their duty, to de- 
vote a certain portion of their substance to the service of God and 
the improvement of man. The pitiful sums hitherto devoted to 
these objects, compared with what is expended in gratifying pride, 
and ambition, and luxury, is a libel on the Christian world. If we 
had right views of the grandeur and importance of such objects, ' 
instead of contributing sixpences, shillings, and guineas, we should 
behold wealthy Christians devoting hundreds, and even thousands 
a year, to the improvement of society and the advancement of the 
interests of religion ; and all this could be done by thousands in 
our country, without depriving themselves of a single comfort or 
sensitive enjoyment. 

Let us consider, for a moment, the sums we have expended in 
madness and folly, in the pursuits of ambition and the desolations 
of war — and we shall then be able to determine « whether it be 
not in our power to raise 40 millions of pounds for the improve- 
ment of society. It has been calculated, that, out of 127 years, 
commencing with 1688, and terminating in 1815, England spent 
65 years in war, and 62 in peace. The war of 1688, after 
lasting nine years, and raising our expenditure in that period 26 
millions, was ended by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. . Then 
came the war of the Spanish succession, which began in 1702, 
was concluded in 1713, and absorbed 62^ millions of British 
money. Without noticing the wars of the Pretender in 1715 
and 1745, the next was the Spanish war of 1739, settled for at 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, after costing 54 millions. Then came 
the seven years' war of 1756, which terminated with the treaty 
of Paris, in 1763, in the course of which we spent 112 millions. 
The next was the American war of 1775, which lasted eight 
years, in which crusade against the liberties of mankind, we ex- 
pended no less than 186 millions. The French revolutionary 
war began 1793, lasted nine years, and exhibited an expenditure 
of 464 millions. The war against Buonaparte began in 1803, 
and ended in 1815. During those twelve years of extravagance 
and carnage, we spent the enormous sum of 1159 millions I ! 
771 of which were raised by taxes, and 388 by loans. In the 
war of 1688 we borrowed 20 millions ; in the war of the Span- 



PENSION LIST. 325 

ish succession, 32^ millions ; in the Spanish war of 1739, 29 
millions ; in the seven years' war, 60 millions ; in the American 
war, 104 millions ; and in the revolutionary war, 201 millions •, — 
so that the sums borrowed in these 7 wars, during 65 years, 
amounted, in all, to above 834 millions. During the same time, 
we raised by taxes 1499 millions — forming a total expenditure of 
2333 millions! which is equal to about £100 for every man, 
woman, and child in Scotland, or about £600 for every family ; 
and which would be sufficient to establish a system of education, 
such as we have described, for a population of about 820 mil- 
lions ; or, in other words, for all the inhabitants of the globe. 
Thus we see, that when ambition and revenge are to be gratified, 
when tyranny is to be supported, when the human race is to be 
slaughtered by millions, and when all the arts of mischief and 
destruction which the demon of war has devised, are to be brought 
into operation — there is no \tant of funds to carry such schemes 
into effect. During the war with Buonaparte 40 millions would 
have bpen considered as a mere item in the national expenditure, 
amounting to little more than the war taxes of a single year. 
And shall it ever be said that such a sum cannot now be raised 
for counteracting moral evil and human misery, and training our 
population to " glory and immortality ?" That man who would 
oppose suck a grant, whatever rank he may hold in society, 
ought to he branded as an enemy to his species. It was but the 
other year that twenty millions were granted for the emancipation 
of our colonial slaves, and scarcely a voice was lifted up against 
it ; and there is not an individual at this moment that can say that 
he-personally feels any part of the burden. It requires only that 
a similar sum be doubled in order to set in motion a machinery 
which would, ere long, promote the renovation of the British 
population, and, ultimately, of all the inhabitants of the globe. 

Let us consider, farther, a ^ew more items of our expenditure, 
which might be saved and appropriated to purposes of human im- 
provement. We have, for example, a pension list, the amount 
of which, for the last half century, would more than accomplish 
all the objects to which I allude. This list includes the names of 
many hundreds, nay thousands of individuals, who never per- 
formed the least service for the benefit of their country,, and yet 
have been permitted to devour thousands, and even millions, of the 
wealth of the nation. A considerable proportion of these individ- 
uals are ladies, connected with the nobility and gentry, no one 
of whom ever wrote a treatise on any subject, promoted a useful 
invention, or handled a single musket in defence of their country. • 
One of these ladies, since 1823, has pocketed more than £10,000 ; 

28 



326 PENSION LIST. 

another, since 1803, above £16,000 ; another, since 1784, above 
£2S,000 ; and two ladies, belonging to the same family, £28,096. 
One family, consisting of four individuals, one of whom is a lady, 
since 1787, has swallowed up no less than £86,000 of the na- 
tional resources; and two individuals, belonging to another family, 
the sum of £60,816. About a dozen individuals, belonging to 
seven or eight families, have consumed no less than £280,000, 
wrung from a nation ground down under the load of excessive 
taxation. What, then, would be the amount o^ all the svms which 
have been expended on the thousands of individuals whose names 
have been recorded in the pension list during the last 50 years ! 
And, be it remembered, that most, if not all, of these persons are 
possessed of independent fortunes, are connected with the higher 
circles of society, and scarcely a dozen of them have performed 
a single action that entitled them to such remuneration — while 
many worthy individuals, men of science and philanthropy, who 
have promoted knowledge and the best interests of society, have 
been left to pine in poverty, and to pass their lives in an inglori- 
ous obscurity. — Another item which might be saved, and devoted 
to the purpose of mental improvement, is the immense sums which 
have been expended in electioneering contests. In some instances, 
no less than forty thousand pounds have been expended by a 
single family in endeavouring, for selfish purposes, to obtain for 
a friend a seat in Parliament, which were wasted in promoting 
bribery, perjury, broils, contentions, rioting, and drunkenness. 
In the late elections (January, 1835) we have reason to believe 
that several millions have been expended. Supposing that there 
were only 550 contested elections — that only two individuals 
were opposed to each other — and that the average expense of each 
candidate amounted to £3000, the whole sums wasted in this 
manner would amount to three millions three hundred thousand 
pounds. In one or two instances it is asserted, that the expenses 
incurred by a single candidate were no less than twelve and fifteen 
thousand pounds. — The expenses, too, connected with sinecure 
offices^ which have been bestowed on wealthy individuals, would 
be nearly sufficient to pay the annual interest of the sum requisite 
for establishing all the institutions to which I have adverted. It 
has been calculated, that the incomes of only eleven persons con- 
nected with the " Peel and Wellington ministry," along with some 
of their friends — derived from sinecures, places, and pensions — 
amount to about £88,000 per annum, besides their official sala- 
ries as ministers of the crown. The Duke of Wellington alone — 
including pensions and interest of grant — is said to cost the coun- 
try £33,104 a year. — Almost all the money expended in elections 



SAVINGS IN PEKSONAL EXPENDITURE. 327 

might be saved, if proper laws and regulations were adopted, and 
if electors were uniformly permitted to act as rational beings, and 
to vote according to the dictates of their consciences ; and if only- 
half the expenses usually incurred on such occasions were devoted 
to nobler objects, it would form an important item in the expenses 
requisite for establishing philanthropic institutions. As to sine- 
cures, either in church or state, it is nothing short of barefaced 
robbery of the national wealth, and an insult offered to an enlight- 
ened people, that such offices should exist; and, particularly, that 
they should be bestowed on those who are living in splendour and 
luxurious abundance. i 

Besides the savings which might be made in the public expen- 
diture, there is a still greater sum which might be saved from 
various items in the private*establishments of wealthy individuals, 
which might be devoted to national improvements. The saving 
of a single bottle of wine a-day, would amount to £50 a-year ; 
the discarding of an unnecessary servant, to nearly the same 
sum ; keeping four horses instead of six, would be a saving of at 
least £60; and discarding a score of hounds would save more 
than a hundred pounds a-year. There are thousands in our 
country, who in this way could save £500 a year, to be devoted 
to rational and benevolent purposes, without feeling the least dimi- 
nution of their sensitive enjoyments. There are hundreds of 
thousands in the middle ranks of life who could save £20 a-year, 
by discarding unnecessary luxuries, in regard to houses, furniture, 
food and clothing, and feel themselves just as comfortable as 
before ; and there are many more among the lower ranks who 
could save several pounds every year, which are now wasted 
either in folly- or intemperance, and find themselves richer and 
more comfortable at the close of the year than at any former 
period. Let us suppose, what is perhaps not far from the truth, 
that there are 50,000 individuals, or the j^-^ part of the British 
population, v/ho, at an average, have incomes of £3000 per 
annum, and could devote £300 a-year to public purposes — some 
much more, and some less ; this would amount to Jif teen millions 
a-year. There may next be reckoned about 200,000 with 
incomes, at an average of £300 per annum, who could devote a 
similar proportion, namely £30 per annum ; which would amount 
to six millions. Supposing the population of Great Britain to be 
16,000,000, and that only one-fourth of this number, namely 
4,000,000, have it in their power to devote a certain portion of 
their income to the purposes alluded to, there would still remain 
3,750,000 of the lower classes, who might be supposed, on an 
average, able to devote one guinea a-year to the same objects, 



328 MONEY SPENT ON SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS. 

which would amount to nearly four millions. So that twenty-fine 
millions of pounds might be raised annval.ly for literary, philan- 
thropic, and religious purposes, without any one feeling the loss 
of any sensitive enjoyment, but, on the contrary, enjoying the 
purest gratification in beholding improvements going forward, and 
the plans of beneyolence gradually accomplishing. Passing many 
other considerations of this kind, the only other item of expendi- 
ture I shall notice is, that which is spent in the purchase of spi- 
rituous liquors^ which are for the most part devoted to the pur- 
poses of intemperance. According to an estimate made by Mr. 
Buckingham and the Committee appointed by Parliament to inves- 
tigate the state of intemperance, it appears, that, within the limits 
of Great Britain and Ireland, there is a loss sustained by the use 
of ardent spirits amounting to nearly*^'- Jifty millions sterling per 
annum .f'' It is stated, that, in the city of Glasgow alone, the sum 
expended in intoxicating drinks " is nearly equal to the whole 
amount expended on public institutions of charity and benevo- 
lence in the entire united kingdom." This item alone would be 
more than sufficient for all the purposes of philanthropy and of 
universal improvement. I shall only add farther, that, were all 
the bishoprics in England reduced to £2000 a-year, the balance 
would furnish several hundred thousands of pounds a-year which 
might be devoted to educational purposes ; and both religion and 
education would be promoted by such an arrangement. Still, our 
bishops would have more than double the income of the Protestant 
bishops on the Continent, and would likely perform more sub- 
stantial services than they now do to the cause of religion. Con- 
versing lately with an intelligent Prussian gentleman on this sub- 
ject, he informed me that the clergy in Prussia of the same rank 
with vicars and rectors in the Church of England, have an income 
of from £100 to £250, reckoned in British money; and that the 
salaries of the bishops are only from £300 to £500, and that 
they are far more actively engaged in the services of the church 
than the bishops of England. 

Thus it appears, that there is, in reality, no want of resources 
for establishing an efficient system of moral and intellectual edu- 
cation on the most splendid and extensive scale. Instead of forty 
millions in all, we could raise forty millions per annum, and 
would ultimately be gainers by such a sacrifice, in the diminution 
of crime, the protection of property, the progress of improvement, 
and the increased physical and mental powers of our population. 
We have the power and the means to promote the reformation of 
society, and even the renovation of the world at large, if we had 
the will to apply them. But this is the grand desideratum. To 



RESOURCES FOR ESTABLISHING EDUCATION. 329 

attempt to convince sonne of our dukes and marquises, our bishops 
and squires, our fox-hunters, horse- racers, and fashionable gam- 
blers, that it is their duty to contribute of their abundance for such 
an object, would be as vain as to beat the air, to speak to the hur- 
ricane, or attempt to interrupt the dashings of a cataract by the 
breath of our nostrils. But there is one class of the population to 
which I would address myself with some hopes of success — 
namely, members of the Christian Church on whom Providence 
has bestowed a considerable portion of wealth and influence. 
Many of these have already come forward with a noble liberality 
in the cause of missions and of general philanthropy ; and they 
require only an additional stimulus to excite them to still more 
liberal exertions in the cause of human improvement. But the 
generality of Christians seem to have forgotten the Divine decla- 
ration, " The silver is mine, and the gold is mine, saith the Lord 
of hosts," — and that a goodly portion of the wealth which God 
hath bestowed upon them, ought to be directly consecrated to his 
service. The church itself has hitherto been too remiss on this 
point, and has not been careful to enforce upon the consciences 
of its members, their indispensable obligation to devote their trea- 
sures to the promotion of religion and of public improvement. 
How many nominal Christians do we see living under the influ- 
ence of that " covetousness which is idolatry," — hoarding up hun- 
dreds and thousands of pounds, for the purpose either of avarice 
or ostentation, or under pretence of providing fortunes for their 
families, while it is with the utmost difficulty that a single guinea 
can be squeezed from their pockets for any object of benevolence 
or public utility ? Almost every one seems to reason, like the 
Duke of Newcastle, that he has a right " to do what he pleases 
with his own,^^ not considering that he is responsible to God for 
the use he makes of his riches, and for every shilling he with- 
holds from his service. 

Under the Mosaic economy, the Jews were enjoined to devote 
a tenth part of their substance to the Levites and the Priests, or, 
in other words, for the purpose of supporting education and the 
worship of God ; for the Levites were the principal instructors 
of the people. Under the Christian dispensation, the same pro- 
portion, if not more, ought to be voluntarily offered for carrying 
forward those plans which have a tendency to promote the 
honour of God and the good of mankind. In certain cases, where 
a wealthy individual has no family of his own, I conceive it is his 
bounden duty to devote at least the one-half of his riches to such 
purposes. Till such views and practices become more general 
among Christians, we must still look forward to a distant period 

28* 



330 NECESSITY OP PHILANTHROPIC EXERTIONS. 

for the arrival of the Millennium. For the purpose of hastening 
the approach of this glorious era, we are told, in ancient prophe- 
cy, that the " kings of Tarshish and of the isles, shall bring pre- 
sents, and offer gifts " — that " the flocks of Kedar and the rams 
of Ncbaioth," shall be brought as acceptable offerings to the 
altar of God, — that "the glory of Lebanon, the fir-tree, the pine- 
ti-ee, and the box together, shall beautify the place of his sanc- 
tuary," — and that, " they shall come on camels and dromedaries, 
and bring gold and incense, and show forth the praises of the 
Lord." Such offerings are expressions of our gratitude to God 
for the bounties of his providence and the riches of his grace, 
and of our desire to co-operate with him, in bringing into effect 
the purposes of his will and the predictions of his word ; and no 
one who is indifferent to such objects ought to assume the charac- 
ter of a follower of Jesus. And, let Christians rememfeer, that 
by carrying forward such a system of education as that to which 
I refer, they are using the most efficient means for promoting the 
extension of the gospel. For the gospel can never be universally 
understood or appreciated till the young be universally educated. 
It is owing to the want of education, and the ignorance and 
vicious habits that result from it, that multitudes refuse to enter 
within a place of worship, and when they do come, are incapable 
of fixing their attention on religious objects, or of understanding 
the truths delivered. 

In the above statements and remarks, I have taken for granted, 
that the government of this or of any other country, might afford, 
from the national funds, a giant of money adequate to the estab- 
lishment of all the institutions to which I have alluded — whether 
infant schools, Sabbath evening institutions, seminaries for <he 
higher branches of moral and intellectual instruction, or precep- 
toral colleges for the training of teachers. But although no go- 
vernment were to feel the least interest in such institutions, it 
is in the power of the people^ and within the range of the means 
they actually possess, to establish them, independently of any ex- 
traneous support. This, I trust, will appear from the considera- 
tions stated in the preceding paragraphs. Let a general " agitation" 
be excited on this subject — let the importance of it be clearly 
proved and illustrated — let the necessity of doing something more 
than has hitherto been done in this respect be fully established — 
let a conviction be deeply impressed upon the minds of the in- 
fluential classes of society, of the utility of such exertions for 
counteracting immorality and crime, for improving the social 
state of human beings, and preparing them for future felicity — 
• — let societies be formed and subscriptions entered into for this 



LIMITED VIEWS OP EDUCATION. 331 

purpose — and let a few seminaries of the description referred to, 
be erected in different districts of the country, — and I have little 
doubt that a spirit of improvement in this respect would ere long 
pervade the mass of the community. Although many would 
stand aloof, and even spurn at such movements, yet I trust there 
is still as much virtue, and liberality, and philanthropy among us, 
as would lead to no inconsiderable exertions in the advancement 
of society in knowledge and religion. For my own part, I have 
no hesitation in pledging myself to devote one-fifth of my an- 
nual income, in the first instance, and one-teyith of it every year 
afterwards, for the promotion of the objects now stated ; provided 
three hundred individuals in this or any other country, shall come 
forward and pledge themselves to dedicate a similar proportion of 
their incomes to the furtherance of the same object.* Such is 
the importance I attach to the subject and the plans under con- 
sideration ; and I feel confident, from the improvements now go- 
ing forward and in agitation, that something more extensive and 
efficient in this respect than has ever been attempted, will, ere 
long, be accomplished. There is a certain people, at whom many 
of our British grandees and newspaper critics are disposed to 
sneer, and upon whom they affect to look down with a certain 
degree of contempt, who, I am confident, will be the first to move 
forward in this work of improvement. They have already made 
an advance in education beyond that of any other civilized na- 
tion, but their system is not yet perfect, nor universally extended. 
The subject, however, is exciting among them almost universal 
attention, and whenever a hint for farther improvement is given, 
it will, I doubt not, be eagerly seized upon, and speedily reduced 
to practice. They have lately undermined, to a great extent, the 

* To prevent misconceptions, it may be proper to state, that the author's 
income, like that of Goldsmith's " country clergyman," has, for eight years 
past, scarcely exceeded " forty pounds a-year," exclusive of the house in 
which-he Uves; but should it be increased in future years, the same pro- 
portion shall be allotted for the object now specified, and a similar propor- 
tion shall be deducted from whatever profits he may derive from the publi- 
cation of the present volume, or any other that may succeed it. Three 
hundred gentlemen whose incomes average jCSOO a-year, could, in the first 
instance, furnish a sum to commence with, amounting to £12,000, and 
every succeeding year, a sum of jCSOOO to carry forward their operations ; 
so that, in the course of ten years, £66,000 would be raised, which would 
be sufficient to establish nearly seventy seminaries, with their libraries, 
apparatus, and museums. However romantic it may appear to some to ex- 
pect such sacrifices, the sums now specified are nothing more than what 
were paid as a tax on such incomes during the late war with France ; and 
they are now solicited only in the shape of a voluntary donation. 



332 VOLUNTARY AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION. 

cause of intemperance , and they have it now in their power io 
consecrate the millions of dollars which were formerly spent in 
degrading sensuality, to the furtherance of education, and the 
cause of national improvement.* If Britain does not soon arouse 
herself from her slumbers and move forward in the cause of edu- 
cation, it will be degrading to the rank she holds in the civilized 
world, to reflect, that she is far excelled in this respect by a re- 
public on the one hand, and a despotical governmentf on the other. 
The only grant of money that was ever directly given by the 
British Parliament for the promotion of education, was £20,000, 
which was conceded by the House of Commons in 1833; and 
Mr. Colquhoun stated, in 1834, that "the utmost that Scotland 
required (ultimately) for the supply of education, was a provision 
of £60,000 per annum." The proposal of such jntifvl sums 
for so grand and extensive an object, is little short of an insult 
offered to the cause of education, *^nd plainly indicates the im- 
perfect and limited views which are still entertained on this sub- 
ject. Some of our members of Parliament, when they talk of 
education, appear to mean nothing more than giving the mass of 
the community a few general instructions in reading, writing, and 
arithmetic, according to the old inefficient system which has so 
long prevailed. The only gentleman who has broached this 
topic in the House of Commons, and who appears to entertain 
clear and comprehensive views on the subject of education, is 
Mr. Roebuck ; but, unfortunately, his proposals and his luminous 
exposition of this subject, seem to have been, in a great measure, 
unappreciated and neglected. 

Supposing seminaries established to the extent which the popu- 
lation of any country requires, a difficulty still remains to be sur- 
mounted ; and that is. How we sliall be enabled to induce parents 
and guardians of all ranks to send their children to the different 
schools appropriated for their instruction ? It would certainly be 
eligible, in the first instance, to try the effects o? moral suasion — r 
to represent to reluctant parents, in the most affectionate manner, 
the utility and importance of rational and moral instruclion, both 
to themselves and to their offspring — the beneficial cflects that 
would accrue to them even in the present life, and the moral cer- 
tainty that they would be directed in the path which leads to 
happiness in the life to come ; — and, in every instance, where 
poverty, or a disinclination to pay the fees, stood in the way, the 

* Here I allude to the J\i'orthern States of America, particularly to Penn- 
sylvania, New-York, New-Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Maine, 
t Prussia. 



MULTITUDE OP CRIMES. 333 

children should be educated free of expense to the parents. For 
this purpose, about ten millions more, for Great Britain, would 
require to be annually raised, for defraying the charge of edu- 
cating the children of the poor, and affording salaries for the 
teachers in eyery case where salaries are required. Few parents 
would be found who would perseveringly resist the force of such 
arguments. But, should moral suasion be insufficient for this 
purpose, a law might be passed, as in Prussia, rendering it im- 
perative on every parent to have his children, of a certain age, 
regularly attending an appropriate seminary. Such a law would 
not require to be rigidly enforced beyond the period of a genera- 
tion, or even a period of twenty years. For the children, once 
thoroughly trained in morality and religion, and in all the branches 
of useful knowledge formerly specified, when they arrived at 
manhood, and had families of their own, would require no per- 
suasion or extraneous excitement to induce them to give their off- 
spring all the education that can possibly be obtained. The ad- 
vantages they themselves have experienced from instruction, and 
the relish for knowledge they have imbibed, would be instead of 
a thousand arguments to impel them to seize upon every mean 
of instruction within their reach ; and any individual who reason- 
ed or acted otherwise, would be considered as a phenomenon in 
society. Ignorance and its usual accompaniments, obstinacy and 
self-conceit, are the chief obstacles which prevent rational argu- 
ments from producing their effect, and which render compulsory 
measures, in certain cases, expedient. But when a community 
has once become thoroughly enlightened and moralized, the path 
of duty is clearly perceived to be the path of interest and of hap- 
piness, and compulsory enactments are rendered unnecessary. 



CHAPTER XII. 
On the Utility of establishing Seminaries for universal EducatioUi 

Various insulated remarks on this topic have been interspersed 
in the preceding pages, and " the advantages which would result 
from a more general diffusion of knowledge among all ranks," 
have been illustrated in a separate volume.* I shall, therefore, 
in this place, advert to only two or three additional considerations. 

I. The establishment of schools for universal instruction, while 

* '* The Improvement of Society by the Diffusion of Knowledge," first 
published in 1833, of which two editions have been published in Scotland, 
and four or five in America. 



334 MULTITUDE OF CRIJIES. 

it counteracted ignorance, and improved the intellect — would tend 
to the prevention of crime, and might ultimately extirpate those 
dispositions and affections which led to it. 

It was lately stated in the Times newspaper, as the result -of 
a moderate calculation, that there are 50,000 thieves and pick- 
pockets in and about London. According to the statement of 
an intelligent person, who acted several years as the teacher of 
the boy.prisoners in Newgate, — there are above fifty committals 
to this prison every week, on an average, or nearly 3000 in the 
year. The persons committed, of course, are not all new offen- 
ders, as the same individuals frequently return again. But, al- 
though on this account we subtract two or three hundreds from 
this sum, the black catalogue swells to a dreadful amount when 
we add to it the number of prisoners committed to the- peniten- 
tiaries, correction houses, and other jails of the metropolis. The 
trials at the Old Bailey average 2550 in the year, and they are 
said to be hurried forward with appalling rapidity ; the average 
time given to each case being only eight minutes and a half; 
though many cannot occupy two, three, or at most five minutes, 
as the average time now stated includes trials that will last a day, 
and others that occupy several hours. According to a Report of 
a Committee of the House of Commons, there were confined in 
prisons and bridewells, during seven years, ending in 1831, 
122,000 persons accused of crimes, or at the rate of 17,428 per 
annum. Of these, 85,000 were convicted of the crimes laid to 
their charge, so that 12,142 was the average amount of the 
yearly convictions. It has been estimated, in regard to juvenile 
delinquency, that more than 1500 boys, in London alone, are 
employed in thieving, picking pockets, and committing all kinds 
of petty depredations. It is also found, that crimes, so far from 
diminishing, are, in this country, regularly increasing. From the 
Report of a late Committee of Parliament, it appears, that, during 
the last 14 years they have increased in the proportion o^ twenty- 
four to ten, that is, they have been far more than doubled in the 
course of that short [)eriod. 

These statements exhibit a frightful view of the extent and the 
progress of crimes. Nor is it to be wondered at, when we con- 
sider the present state of education, and the manner in which it is 
conducted — the principles on which our penal code has been con- 
structed, and the manner in which our criminal laws are executed. 
Our penal code, throughout all its departments, is deeply imbued 
with the spirit of revenge. To produce pain and disgrace to the 
criminal appears to be its principal object ; and, in the great ma- 
jority of instances, it has the effect of hardening and rendering 



INEFFICIENCY OF SEVERE PUNISHMENTS. 335 

more desperate the persons whom it ouglit to have softened and 
reformed. To reform the criminal, to cure him of the moral 
disease which led him into crime, to impart appropriate instruc- 
tion to his mind, and to prepare the way for his restoration to 
society as a renovated character, are circumstances which seem 
to have been entirely overlooked in the arrangements connected 
with our criminal legislation. In this respect a dreadful infatua- 
tion seems to have seized upon our legislators, implying a defi- 
ciency both of wisdom, of humanity, and of benevolence. When 
certain species of crime are on the increase, laws still more severe 
are enacted, and put in execution with all the pomp and rigour 
of authority and revenge. If whipping and imprisonment, toiling 
at the tread-wheel, labouring in the hulks, and transportation 
beyond seas, are insufficient to arrest the progress of crime, then 
executions without number are resorted to, in order to sweep the 
culprits at once from the face of the earth. One enactment after 
another issues from the source of power ; one law comparatively 
mild is cancelled, and another more severe substituted in its place ; 
a severe punishment is sometimes modified and rendered less 
severe; the sentence of death is commuted into transportation for 
life, and a year's labour at the tread-mill for seven years' trans- 
portation. Every year new enactments, laws, and regulations, 
with alterations and modifications of former laws, issue from the 
legislative department of government ; but all is of no avail to 
stop the progress of immorality and crime. Nor need we wonder 
at such a result ; it is precisely such as we ought to expect from 
such a mode of legislation as now exists. Our state physicians 
act nearly in the same manner as the quack, who, instead of 
striking at the root of a sore which is undermining the constitu- 
tion, covers it over with a slender skin, and leaves the internal 
virus to gather strength till it break out in incurable ulcers, 
throughout every part of the system. They attempt to lop off 
the twigs and branches from the tree of crime, while they leave 
the root and the trunk to break forth afresh in still greater luxu- 
riance. No efficient preventive system has yet been arranged to 
strike at the root of crime, to prevent its growth, and to make the 
machinery of society move onward with smoothness and harmony. 
And, so long as preventive measures are overlooked, and moral 
training neglected, the severest laws that can be framed will be 
altogether inefficient to counteract the criminal propensities of the 
human heart.* 



* America is almost the only country where a considerable degree of at- 
tention has been bestowed on this subject. The inhabitants of the United 
States arc greatly in advance of European governments in this respect, hav- 



336 INEFFICIENCY OF SEVERE PUNISHMENTS. 

Our legislators and political quacks tell us, that the design of 
severe punishments is to deter others from the commission of 
crimes. But even this object they are altogether insufficient to 
accomplish; for it is well known, that in those countries where 
punishments are most appalling and severe, crimes are the most 
frequent. Even the dreadful punishment inflicted in Russia on 
the pirates and robbers who infested the banks of the Wolga, who 
were hung alive on hooks fastened into their ribs, and left to pine 
away in agonizing torture, for days together, and in hundreds or 
thousands at a time, was insufficient to put a stop to the robberies 
it was intended to prevent, and it has been lately abolished. If 
we compare the crimes committed under some of the despotical 
governments of Europe, with those committed in the United States, 
where the laws are comparatively mild and equitable, we shall 
fmd that there are nwch fewer crimes committed in the latter case 
than in the former. That capital punishments have little influence 
in deterring from criminal practices, appears frorn the circumstance 
of robberies being frequently committed among the crowds assem- 
bled during the time of an execution. The following example, 
extracted from *' The Schoolmaster in Newgate," will illustrate 
our position : — -" One morning a boy," who appears to have been 
previously in the habit of pilfering, " came into his father's room, 
and seeing nothing to eat for breakfast but bread and butter on 
the table, he said, 'What! nothing for breakfast? Ah! wait a 
bit.' He then went out, and in a quarter of an hour came back 
with rump steaks and a pint of rum, besides having money in his 
pocket. He had gone out, and stolen a piece of Irish linen from 
a shop on Ludgate Hill, took it to a buyer of stolen goods, and 
bought the articles he had brought home, all in the short space 
of fifteen minutes ; and this was not an uncommon thing for him 
to do, although his parents were not in need. The boy was at 
length transported, when he was only fourteen years of age. He 
subsequently detailed to me all his practices, and how he got into 
crime. His parents resided in a court running out of the Old 
Bailey, and he had witnessed every execvtion which had taken 
•place during his short career. So much for the effect of execu- 
tions, as supposed to deter from crime; — indeed mos^ of the hoys 

ing established systems of penitentiary discipline, on enlightened principles, 
— connected with regular labour and religious instruction — in Auburn, Sing- 
Sing, Weathersfield, Pittsburg, and other places, which have already been 
attended with the most beneficial effects. Of course, several defects still 
attach themselves to these establishments ; but the plan lately proposed by 
Mr. Livingston, Secrctarj' of State at Washington, promises to carry such 
penitentiaries in their principle and operation very near to perfection. 



DEFICIENCY OF EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 337 

engaged in crime appear to have a great pleasure in attending 
executions.'''' The author adds, " These boys are capable of re- 
ceiving impressions, and are as susceptible of sentiments of grati- 
tude as any lord's son, if the proper treatment were used to draw 
them out. It is only by cultivating the best feelings of our na- 
ture, that any human beings can be improved ; all other systems 
are fallacious, and founded on gross error." The same author 
informs us, that "There are ichole families who had never any 
other calling but that o? theft — ay, hundreds of such families are 
now in beirtg in London who have continued the same course, 
some for twenty, thirty, or forty years. One old woman said, 
last year, when her seventh son was transported, ' Ha ! I know 
not what I shall do, now poor Ned is going ; he was a good lad 
to me ; and though I say it, he was as good a hand at his business 
as any in London.' * O, then, he was brought up to business,' I 
replied. She rejoined, ' God bless you, no ! I thought he had 
told when you made his brief that ours was a right sort of cross 
family ;' adding, ' and so was their father's father, and good ones 
they all were ; now there's little Dick, my eldest son's boy ; but 
I think he'll never raiake the man his father did — he's dull ; be- 
sides, he's not old enough quite for any good business yet.' Some 
of these pathetic mothers will, when warmed with the cream, 
speak of the numbers which have fallen in their families with 
as much pride and exultation as a Spartan mother of old used to 
do, when numbering her sons who had fallen in their country's 
cause. The increase of these families is daily going on, through 
intermarriages, and other ramifications of family connections ; 
and thus, in a great measure, is the problem solved, as to the 
increase of crime. This is an epitome of the history of the poor 
in London and its environs, which might have been given of them 
forty years ago, and will apply, for ages to come, unless the legis- 
lature grapple with the subject at once." Such facts evidently 
show, that neither severity of punishment, nor any other arrange- 
ment yet made by our legislators, is adequate to arrest the pro- 
gress of crime, and to promote the reformation of society. 

The deficiency of education in our country, as well as the 
inefficiency and absurdity of our penal enactments, will account 
for the increase of crime. Instead of one out of four of the 
population, attending instruction, it is estimated that in England 
only one out of sixteen, in Scotland one out often, and in Ireland 
but one out of eighteen, are receiving scholastic instruction, which, 
in most cases, is miserably deficient ; " every miserable garret or 
hovel in which weakness or decrepitude ekes out a wretched sub- 
sistence, by abusing the title of teacher — being dignified with 

29 



338 DEFICIENCY OF EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. 

the name of a school." Bui let us come to particulars. According 
to the " Report of the British and Foreign School Society," for 
1833, it is intimated that in the Metropolis alone, above 150,000 
children are growing up without education. In one village, con- 
taining 272 families, consisting of 1467 persons, only 562 were 
found able to read. In other districts, villages are pointed out 
containing 1000, 1500, or 2000 inhabitants, without any efficient 
school. Whole families are described as having reached maturity, 
without any member of them being able to read a single letter ; 
in short, that many thousands of children are growing up in utter 
ignorance, not only of the elements of learning, but of all moral 
and religious obligations. In the town of Nottingham, it is as- 
serted, in a circular lately published, that above a thousand chil- 
dren of an age suitable for school, are growing up in total igno- 
rance. From a canvass lately instituted by the Committee of the 
Herefordshire Auxiliary Bible Society, it appears that out of 
41,017 individuals visited only 24,222, or little more than one- 
half, were able to read.* In the Report of the British and Foreign 
School Society, for 1831, is the following statement: "Debasing 
ignorance prevails to an extent which could not be credited, were 
it not verified by the closest investigation. The facts which have 
bf»c;j elicited respecting the moral and intellectual state of those 
counties which have been disgraced by riots and acts of incen- 
diarism, are truly affecting, and yet they are but a fair represen- 
tation of the actual state of our peasantry. Out of nearly 700 
prisoners put on trial in four counties, upwards of two hundred 
and sixty were as ignorant as the savages of the desert — they could 
not read a single letter. Of the whole 700, only 150 could write, 
or ewen read with ease ; and nearly the whole number were to- 
tally ignorant with regard to the nature and obligations of true 
religion." In the reports of the same Society for 1832-3, it is 
stated, " In September, 1831, out of 50 prisoners put on trial at 
Bedford, only four could read. In January, 1833, there were in 
the same prison between 50 and 60 awaiting their trials, of whom 
not more than ten could read, and even some of these could not 
make out the sense of a sentence, though they knew their letters. 
At Wisbeach, in the Isle of Ely, out of 19 prisoners put on trial, 
only six were able to read and write, and the capital offences 
were committed entirely by persons in a state of the most de- 
basing ignorance. 

Not only in England, but even in Scotland, we shall find a 
glaring deficiency in the means of education. In Glasgow, at 

• * Edinburgh Review, No. 117, Oct. 1833. 



BENEFICIAL, RESULTS OF EDUCATION. 339 

the last census, there were, between the ages of 5 and 15, 46,000, 
that is, between one-fourth and one-fifth of the population at an 
age to receive education. But, in point of fact, it is found that 
there are only one-fourteenth at school, or 14,285, reckoning the- 
whole population at 200,000; consequently there are 31,715 
children absent from the means of instruction, who ought to be 
attending them ; and it is found that there are about 6000 living 
by crime, a large proportion of whom are young. In the Abbey 
parish of Paisley, which contains nearly one-half of the whole 
population, only one-twentietkaiienA school. In this town there 
are 3000 families among whom education does not enter, and 
where children are growing up wholly untaught. " In Perth, the 
proportion attending school is under one-fifteenth ; and in Old 
Aberdeen only one twenty-fifth. As to the country districts, in 
the 132 parishes in the counties of Banff, Elgin, and Aberdeen, 
the average of the whole is one-eleventh; and there are instances 
of one-twelfth, one-thirteenth, one-fifteenth, and one-twentieth, in 
the other parishes, taken indiscriminately over the south and 
central parts of Scotland. In a parish in the county of Berwick, 
the proportion at school is one-fifteenth ; in a parish in the county 
of Dumbarton one-thirteenth; and, lest it should be surmised that 
this deplorable state as to education exists only in manufacturing 
parishes, where a dense population has recently arisen, it is proper 
to state, that several of these instances are in rural parishes ; 
the two worst instances — those in the counties of Banff and 
Aberdeen — being entirely country parishes. In the 143 Highland 
parishes, out of 500,000, there are 83,000 who cannot read, and 
have no means of learning ; and there are 250,000 who cannot 
write."* Such is the deplorable deficiency of education even in 
Scotland, which has been so much lauded on account of its pa- 
rochial establishments, and the intelligence of its population ; and 
therefore we need not wonder that, even here, immorality and 
crime have of late been on the increase. 

What is the remedy, then, which will counteract, and ulti- 
mately subvert the moral evils to which we have adverted? I 
answer, without the least hesitation — Intellectual^ Moral, and 
Religious instruction, universally extended — not the form of 
education without the substance, not merely pronunciation, cy- 
phering, and conning memorial tasks, not merely committing to 
memory, formulas, catechisms, speeches, psalms and hymns ; 
but the imparting of clear and comprehensive ideas on all those 

* The above facts are abridged from Mr. Colquhoun's statements in Par- 
fiament respectin;T education in Scotland — who deserves no Jittlo praise fof 
the labour and ijttention iig hjis bestow^ed on the subjcc4;, 



340 BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF EDUCATION. 

subjects on which man is interested as a rational, social, and im- 
mortal being. There has never yet been a complete and efficient 
system of education, of this description, established in any coun- 
try under heaven ; the improvements lately introduced in the 
United States, Prussia, "Wirtcmberg, Bavaria, and other places, 
being only approximations ; and hence society, in such countries, 
though greatly meliorated, is not yet half moralized or reformed. 
— That such a system of instruction, universally established and 
judiciously conducted, would raise the tone of moral feeling, and 
counteract criminal propensities, no sane mind will presume to 
call in question. We find, from the facts above stated, that igtio- 
ranee and crime are intimately connected — that those who ren- 
dered themselves amenable to the laws of their country, had been 
allowed to grow up without instruction — and that " the capital 
offences were committed entirely by persons in a state of the most 
debasing ignorance." Indeed all the cases stated, may be con- 
sidered as cases of absolute ignorance ; for although some of the 
criminals alluded to, " knew their letters, they could not make out 
the sense of a sentence ;" and the bare circumstance of being able 
to read., or, in other words, to pronounce the sounds of words 
and characters, is unworthy the name of education, though it ia 
too frequently dignified with this appellation. 

If ignorance, then, with all its usual debasing accompaniments, 
be one of the chief sources of crime, we have only to remove the 
cause in order to prevent the effect. Wherever the mind has 
been </ioroi/^/iZy enlightened and Judiciously trained from infancy 
in moral habits, the tendency to criminal practices has been at 
the same time subdued. " Train up a child in the way he should 
go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." I question 
if a single instance can be brought forward inconsistent with this 
position.* This likewise holds true in the case of nations as well 
as individuals — in proportion to the extent and the efficiency of 
the means employed. In Ireland, there is more crime than in 
England, and in England more than in Scotland ; and this is cor- 
responding to the proportion of the means of instruction in the 
respective countries. In the Northern States of America, parti- 
cularly New England, where almost the whole population is well 
educated, there is perhaps less crime and misery than in any 
other country in the world. f In regard to New York, it is worthy 

* See page 117. 

t In reference to the city of Boston, the Capital of New-England, Mr. 
Stuart, in his "Three years in North America," has the following- remarks : 
—"This city is clean and well paved, and seems to be not only entirely 
free of beggars, but of any population that is not apparently living couifort« 



BBTilEFlClAt RESULTS OP EDUCATION. 341 

of remark, in this point of view, that there was no conviction for 
murder or any other capital offence, in that State, comprising two 
millions of inhabitants^-during the year 183"J. The number of 
schools in New York, that year, was 9270; the. number of 
scholars about 500,000, besides those attending academies and 
colleges ; and the total expenditure for common schools the same 
year, 1,126,486 dollars, or £250,329; which is more than four 
times the sum which Mr. Colquhoun says Scotland would require 

able. I did not observe a single individual in the streets of this city who 
was not well apparelled, nor an individual of what we call the lower orders." 
— " At Boston there is not the semblance of idleness and filth among the 
people anywhere. All are, or seem to be, in the full enjoyment of the ne- 
cessaries of life ; and all busy, active, and employed. What a contrast, in 
these respects, betw^een this city and the city of Dublin, which, in July, 
1827, I saw crowded with beggars almost naked, even in the heart of it ; 
and, on the arrival of a mail-coach in Sackville Street, scrambling for the 
few halfpence which the passengers threw among them."— In 1830, the 
number of schools in Boston was 235, of which 80 were public, and 155 
private schools, besides about a dozen academies and classical schools, seve- 
ral of which are exclusively devoted to female pupils. The total expense 
of the schools in 1829, for tuition, fuel, books, «&c, 196,839 dollars, or about 
jC43,739, which is more than double the grant for education voted by par- 
liament in 1833, to be distributed over the whole of Britain,— Where edu- 
cation is so general and well-conducted, almost every individual is a reader. 
Hence the number of publications in Massachusetts, Connecticut, &c. ex- 
ceeds that of any other country. In Boston, there are regularly published 
10 daily newspapers, 7 twice a-week, and 26 weekly, being 43 in all — be- 
sides Magazines, Reviews, and Religious and Literary Journals of various 
descriptions ; of which there is one published every half year, 7 every 
quarter, 5 every two months, 3 every fortnight, 22 monthly, and nine an- 
nually, including 6 almanacs ; being in all, 47 periodicals, in a city contain- 
ing only 62,000 inhabitants. These periodicals, it is evident, would never 
be published and sold, unless the inhabitants at large were universally given 
to reading.— And where a habit of reading useful publications is general, 
the hydra of Crime will seldom lift up its heads — the mind being preoccu- 
pied with nobler pursuits. As an evidence of the immense quantity of lite- 
rary works distributed in these States, I was lately informed by a literary 
correspondent in Connecticut, that one of the printers in Hartford, the capi- 
tal of that State, containing only 8000 inhabitants — had printc<l, during the 
year 1833, of Geographies alone, great and small, no less than 200,000 
copies. — The general state of educatiori in Massachusetts is as follows : The 
whole number of towns in the State is 305, and the whole population 
610,014. The population of 99 towns, from whicli returns were lately 
made, is 201,681." Of these 57,866 attended public or private schools, 
which is equal to the proportion of 1 to 3 J; or three times the number in 
proportion to the population of those attending schools in Scotland. In adr 
dition to which it ought to be considered that the education in New-Eng- 
land is far more efficient and comprehensive than in this couritry. — -.The 
above statements are selected from the "American Quarterly Register" far 
May, 1833, and the " American Almanac" for 1834. 

29* 



342 EXPENSE OF PUNISHING CRIME. 

for the supply of education, although its population exceeds that 
of New York by 400,000. In Prussia, since an improved system 
of education was established in that country, it is found that 
crimes have been greatly diminished, and that newspapers, 
magazines, and other publications, have, in many places, in- 
creased more than tenfold. Were we possessed of accurate statis- 
tical statements of the progress of education and of crime in the 
different countries of Europe and the States of America, I have 
no doubt it would clearly appear, that crime is regularly diminish- 
ed nearly in proportion to the progress of an enlightened and 
efficient education. But let no one presume to affirm that the in- 
habitants of any country are educated^ when little more than the 
form of instruction is imparted, and where less than one-fourth 
of the population is actually instructed. 

Had I not already dwelt too long on this topic, it might have 
been shown, that the expense of punishing crime, and the losses 
of property to society in consequence of its prevalence, would be 
more than sufficient to support an efficient national education. 
It has been estimated, that the expenses attendant on the imprison- 
ment, the conviction, and the punishment of criminals, will aver- 
age more than a hundred pounds for each individual. According 
to a statement formerly made, there are yearly committed to jail 
17,428 persons accused of crimes. At £ll5 for each, the an- 
nual expense of the whole would amount to more than trco 
millions* If we add to this the interest of the money expended 
in the erection and repair of jails, penitentiaries, bridewells, bulks, 
and houses of correction — the salaries of jailors, judges, bailiffs, 
and all the otljier officers connected with criminal courts, together 
with the fees of pleaders, attorneys, &c. we shall have at least 
other four millions. If we were to make a rude estimate of the 
loss of property sustained by criminal depredations, the amount 
would be enormous. " I have been assured," says " The School- 
master in Newgate," " that £200 and even £300 in a week, has 
been obtained by one man and a boy, merely by abstracting the 
money in shops which is kept in tills and desks." But supposing, 
on an average, only £120 per annum, as the amount of depreda- 
tion committed by each thief and pickpocket — the number of 
such characters in London being estimated at 50,000, the loss 
sustained by such depredations will amount to six millions ; and 
if we reckon the depredations in all the other parts of the king- 
dom to amount only to the same sum, we shall have twelve mil- 
lions of loss sustained by depredations on property. The police 
establishment in London costs above £200,000 a-year ; and if 
we take into account the expenses connected with all the other 



PRESENT DEGRADATION OF MAN. 343 

police establishments of the nation, which may be reckoned at 
seven times that sum, we shall have an amount of £1,400,000 
on this head : — whereas, less than one-fifth of that sum vi^ould be 
sufficient for the preservation of order among a renovated popula- 
tion. Many other items might have been stated, but the above 
sums, amounting to nearly twenty millions, would be more than 
sufficient for carrying forward a system of national education on 
the most ample and splendid scale. It is therefore madness in 
the extreme to attempt any longer to repress crime by such a 
machinery as has hitherto been employed, while we neglect the 
only efficient means by which its operations may be controlled, 
and its principle extirpated. The very principle of economy, if 
no higher motive impel, should induce us to alter our arrange- 
ments, and to build on a new foundation. It was lately said to 
the public of Edinburgh, with great propriety, when solicited to 
contribute to the erection of a school, — " Give your pence to in- 
fant schools," (I may add, to well conducted seminaries of all 
descriptions,) " and save your pounds on police establishments, 
jails, bridewells, transportations, and executions." In this way 
we should be enabled, at the same time, both to improve society, 
and to increase our national resources. 

II. Such an education as now proposed, universally extended, 
would improve the mental faculties, and raise the character of 
man far beyond the level to ichich it has hitherto attained. 
During almost the whole of the past periods of this world's his- 
tory, the human faculties have been seldom exerted with vigour, 
except for the purpose of promoting mischief, procuring the 
means of animal subsistence, or indulging in childish and degrading 
amusements. Even in the present enlightened age, as it has been 
termed, what are the pursuits which fascinate and absorb almost 
the whole attention of the higher classes of society 1 Horse- 
racing, fox-hunting, prize-fighting, gambling, duelling, coach- 
driving, " steeple chases," slaughtering moor-fowl " o'er hill and 
dale," masquerades, theatrical amusements, and dissipations of all 
kinds. And what are the employments of a great proportion of 
the lower ranks, besides their stated occupations? Cock-fighting, 
gambling, sauntering about the streets, indulging in drunkenness, 
licentiousness, and cruel sports and diversions — while they re- 
main in ignorance of all that is grand and beautiful in the Crea- 
tor's works, and feel no relish for intellectual enjoyments. Even 
the acquirements and pursuits of professed Christians are far 
inferior to the standard of intelligence and morality which reli- 
gion prescribes; for we behold, even among this class, ignorance 
of most subjects with which every rational and religious being 



JJ44 PRESENT DEGRADATION OP MAN. 

ought to beacqu?,inted, combined with hatred of all religious sects 
but their own, with wealth-engrossing dispositions, and "covet- 
ousness, which is idolatry." 

What a pitiful picture of ignorance and degradation would the 
inhabitants of this world present to the view of intelligences of a 
higher order ! Were an inhabitant of the planet Saturn to wing 
his flight to this globe of ours, and were he capable of commu- 
nicating his sentiments in language intelligible to man, we should 
expect to learn from him a minute detail of the history and 
geography of the globe to which he belonged, of the peculiar 
phenomena of nature in that region, of the various aspects of the 
moons, the diversified appearances of the magnificent rings which 
encircle that world, and descriptions of the different scenes of na- 
ture, the operations of art, the sciences cultivated by its inhabit- 
ants, and the plan of God's moral government among them ; and, 
doubtless, our curiosity to become acquainted with the physical 
and moral arrangements of another world, would be abundantly 
gratified. But where an inhabitant of our globe, from among*the 
lower or even from among many of the higher classes, to be 
transported to one of the planets, what account could he give of 
the arts and sciences, of the history, statistics, and natural 
scenery of our worl4 ? What could he say of its continents, 
rivers, islands, oceans, and volcanoes ; its mountain scenery, and 
the properties of its atmosphere, of the variegated surface of the 
moon, and the peculiarities of its motions, of the history of its 
inhabitants, or the progress they had made in knowledge? What 
description could he give of the arts and inventions of modern 
times, of the construction of the instruments by which we view 
distant objects, and by which we penetrate into the scenes invisi- 
ble to the unassisted eye, of the principle of air-balloons, steam- 
engines, air-pumps, mechanical powers, electrical machines, or 
galvanic batteries? Above all, what could he tell them of the 
moral dispensations of the Creator towards our world, and of 
what is contained in the revelations of his word ? He could per- 
haps tell them that there were hills, and rivers, and four-footed 
beasts, and men that were employed in killing each other ; but 
could convey no precise idea of any thing in which this world 
differed from that to which he had been transported. He would 
be looked down upon with pity as a kind of lusus natures, un- 
worthy of the name of a rational being. Of 800 millions of 
men that people our globe, there are at least 750 millions of this 
description, who could give little more information respecting the 
peculiarities of our world to the inhabitants of another planet, 



TITILITY OF GENERAL EDUCATION. _ 345 

than they could receive from an elephant or "- beaver, if such 
creatures had the faculty of communicating their ideas. 

Such is the present character of the great majority of this 
world's population — and how is it to be elevated to a standard 
befitting a rational and immortal intelligence? Only by the uni- 
versal extension of such an education as that, the outlines of 
which we have faintly sketched. The communication of know- 
ledge is the first part of that process by which the human charac- 
ter is to be raised and adorned, as light was the first agent 
employed in the arrangement of the material creation ; and this 
knowledge must, in every instance, be conjoined with religious 
principle and moral conduct, otherwise it will only prove the in- 
telligence of demons. Man, although, in one point of view, he 
is allied to the beasts of the field, in another, he is allied to su- 
perior natures, and even to the Deity himself; and therefore 
ought to be rendered fit for associating with such intelligences — 
for receiving from them communications of knowledge and feli- 
city, and for imparting to them similar benefits in return. If man 
is destined to a future world, as we profess to believe, he will, 
doubtless, mingle with beings of various orders during that in- 
terminable existence which lies before him ; and his preparation 
for such intercourses will, in a great measure, depend on the 
training he receives, and the principles he imbibes, during his 
sojourn in this sublunary sphere. There is no essential dif- 
ference between men on earth, and the highest created be- 
ings in any region of the universe, but what consists in the de- 
gree of knowledge, and the degree of holiness, or moral perfec- 
tion, which they respectively possess. When man is endowed 
with a competent measure of these qualifications, he is fitted for 
the highest degree of social enjoyment, both in this life and in 
the world to come ; and therefore, in so far as we refuse to lend 
our aid to the cause of universal instruction, or set ourselves in 
opposition to it, we do every thing in our power to debase the 
character of our fellowmen, to prevent them from rising in the 
scale of intelligence, and to interpose a barrier to their present 
and future happiness. 

I might likewise have shown the utility of universal education, 
from the tendency it would have to induce the mass of mankind 
to lend their aid in promoting every scheme which tends to ad- 
vance the improvement of the social state of man ; the cultiva- 
tion of the soil, the forming of spacious roads and foot-paths, 
canals, rail-roads, and bridges ; the universal illumination of 
towns, villages, and the country at large, by gas-lights and other 
contrivances ; the establishment of expeditious conveyances in 



346 INTRODUCTION OF THE MILLENNIUM. 

every direction by sea and land ; and the carrying forward to 
perfection the various arts and sciences. But as I have elsewhere 
adverted a little to some of these objects, I shall only add, in the 
meantime, that the value and security of property in any country, 
depend, in a great measure, upon the intelligence and morality 
of its population. If the whole mass of society were thoroughly 
enlightened and moralized, we should no longer hear of" strikes" 
taking place among workmen, of servants embezzling the pro- 
perty of their masters, or of combinations being entered into in 
opposition to the interests of their employers. Every man's 
house would be his castle; and we should lie down to rest in the 
evening in perfect security from the incendiary, the insidious pil- 
ferer, and the midnight depredator. This security has already 
been partially felt in those countries where an enlightened educa- 
tion is general. Mr. Stuart, when describing the New England 
States, remarks, that " robberies very seldom happen in that 
country, and that the doors of houses are frequently left unlocked 
during night" — the inhabitants having little fear of either depre- 
dations or annoyance from their neighbours. 

III. Intellectual and religious education, universally extended, 
in combination with every other Christian exertion, would be 
more efficient than any other arrangement hitherto made for has- 
tening the approach of the Millennium. That a period is about 
to arrive, when knowledge, holiness, and joy, shall distinguish 
the inhabitants of the world in a degree far surpassing what we 
have yet experienced, is clearly predicted in the oracles of inspi- 
ration. By these oracles we are informed, that " All the ends 
of the world shall remember and turn to the Lord, and all the 
kindreds of the nations worship before him" — that " the earth 
shall be full of the knowledge of Jehovah, as the waters cover the 
seas," — and that "all shall know him, from the least to the 
greatest," — that " the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all 
flesh see it together," — that " the heathen shall be given to Mes- 
siah for his inheritance, and the uttermost ends of the earth for 
his possession," — that " all kings shall fall down before him, all 
nations serve him, and the whole earth be filled with his glory," 
— that during the continuance of this happy era, " wars shall 
cease to the ends of the earth, and the nations shall delight them- 
selves in the abundance of peace," — that "the earth shall yield 
her increase, and be fat and plenteous," — that the inhabitants 
" shall build houses and inhabit them, and plant vineyards and 
cat the fruit of them, and shall long enjoy the work of their 
hands," — that " thoy shall go out with joy and be led forth in 
peace," — that " there shall be nothing to hurt or destroy," and 



INTRODUCTION OF THE MILLENNIUM. 347 

that " righteousness and praise shall spring forth before all 
nations." In what manner, then, may we conceive that such 
predictions will be accomplished? Are we to suppose that, by 
one appalling act of Omnipotent power, the wicked will at once 
be swept from the face of the earth, and that the physical aspect 
of our globe will be instantly changed and renovated by the same 
Almighty energy, as at the first creation 1 Or, are we to con- 
clude, that this auspicious era will be introduced in consistency 
with the established laws of nature, and by tHe agency of human 
beings, under the influence and direction of the Divine Spirit? 
For the former supposition we have no evidence whatever in any 
of the intimations given of this event in the Scriptures, and it 
would be inconsistent with all that we know of the by-past ope- 
rations of the Divine Government ; as might be clearly shown, 
by an induction of facts and arguments of various kinds, were 
this the proper place to enter into such a discussion. If, then, 
we admit the latter conclusion, it will follow, that the Millennium 
will be introduced by a concentration of the moral and intellectual 
energies of mankind directed to this great object — by following 
out those plans which are calculated to promote the renovation 
of the world — by the consecration of a far greater proportion of 
our treasures for this purpose than has ever yet been thought of — 
and by directing our eyes to the Supreme Disposer of events for 
that wisdom which is " profitable to direct us" in all our arrange- 
ments, acknowledging Him as the original source of all our acti- 
vities, and who alone can render them successful. 

What, then, are those means by which the moral world may 
be renewed " in knowledge and holiness, after the image of Him 
who created it ?" Undoubtedly the efficient training of the young 
from the earliest period of infancy to the age of manhood, is one 
of the first and most important steps to the thorough renovation 
of the world — a subject which has hitherto been egregiously trifled 
with, and almost overlooked, in our Christian arrangements. We 
have all along laid too much stress upon the mere preaching of the 
gospel, or, in other words, the delivery of a piece of human com- 
position to a mixed multitude, the one-half of whom are unpre- 
pared by previous instruction either to understand or to appreciate 
its truths ; and hence the comparatively feeble effects which have 
been produced on the moral characters of men ; hence the con- 
fused conceptions entertained of Divine truth ; and hence it hap- 
pens, in certain cases, that the truth delivered rebounds from the 
heart like a ball of cork from a wall of adamant, because it has 
not been previously prepared for its reception ; and, to palliate 
our remissness and inactivity, we have sometimes had the pre- 



348 EXERTIONS PRECEDING THE MILLENNIUM. 

sumption to ascribe this effect to the withholding of Divine influ- 
ence. Let it not, however, be imagined that I mean to discourage 
the preaching of the gospel. No : nothing is farther from my 
intention. Let the gospel be proclaimed still more extensively, 
and with far more energy and pathos than have ever yet been 
displayed; and let missionary exertions, and every other Christian 
activity now in operation, be carried forward with still greater 
vigour. But let our chief attention be directed to the preparation 
of the minds of th§ young for th;p reception of the truths of reli- 
gion — to invigorate their rational powers and their principles of 
action, and to counteract, on the first appearance, every evil pro- 
pensity, — and then we may expect that the " Word of God" will 
soon run like a mighty river through the world, and " have free 
course and be glorified," enlightening the understanding, purify- 
ing the affections, and " bringing into captivity every thought to 
the obedience of Christ." An intellectual, moral, and religious* 
education, universally extended, constitutes the essence of the Mil- 
lennium ; it is one of its chief characteristics, and will form the 
foundation of all the happiness which will then be enjoyed ; for it 
is one of the distinguishing circumstances connected with that 
period, that " all shall know Jehovah, from the least to the great- 
est." But how can we expect that the superstructure can be 
reared, if the foundations be not laid, or that " the desert will 
rejoice and blossom as the rose," while the hand of industry is 
never applied to root up the briers and thorns, and to cultivate the 
soil? 

Is it inquired, when we may expect the Millennium to commence? 
I reply, ^Ms^ ivhen we please. Are we willing that it should com- 
mence in the present age ? We have the means in our power, if 
we choose to apply them. In the course o^ forty years from this 
date the Millennium might not only be commenced, but in a rapid 
progress towards the summit of its glory, — provided we are will- 
ing at this moment to concentrate all our moral and intellectual 
energies, and to devote all our superfluous icealth, or at least 
a tenth part of it, to the furtherance of this object. Nay, in the 
course of half that period, we should have a generation rising up 

* In this and various other parts of this work, I have used the v^'ords 
moral and religotis, in compliance with common usage, as if they conveyed 
distinct ideas. But I conceive that the ideas they express are so intimately 
connected that they can never be separated. There can be no true morality 
but what is founded on religion, or the principles of Christianity ; and re- 
ligion can have no real existence but as connected with the morality of the 
Bible — the promotion of which, in principle and conduct, is the great object 
of all the revelations of Heaven. 



EXERTIONS rHECEDING THE MILLENNIUM. 349 

in knowledge and holiness, far superior t© any race which has 
appeared in the world during the ages that arc past. For, were 
we just now to commence a universal system of infant instruction, 
and continue the course through all the higher departments for- 
meily specified — in the course of twenty years all the children 
who are now about two years of age (if continued in life) would 
have arrived at the age o[ twenty. two, in an enlightened and mor- 
alized state, and would form the most numerous and influential 
portion of the population, and give a tone to all ranks of society. 
Even the physical aspect of the globe, within the course of an- 
other century, might be renovated, and adorned with every thing 
that is beautiful and sublime. The wealth that has been expend- 
ed in the madness of warfare, even by civilized nations, during 
a century past, had it been appropriated to philanthropic improve- 
ments, would have been sufficient to have cultivated all the deso- 
late wastes of our globe, to have made its wildernesses like Eden, 
and its deserts "like the garden of the Lord," — in short, to have 
transformed it into something approaching to a terrestrial para- 
dise. We have it in our power to accomplish all this in the cen- 
tury to come, if we are ivilling to devote our energies and our 
treasures to the purposes of philanthropy and general benevolence. 
But, is it of any avail to address the majority of our fellow- 
men on this subject ? No ; we might as soon speak to the tides 
and currents of the ocean, and expect them to stop at our com- 
mand, as to expect that the current of licentiousness, folly, am- 
bition, and avarice, in which three-fourths of mankind are carried 
headlong, will stop its course, and diverge into the channel of re- 
ligion, philanthropy and beneficence. But I trust there is still a 
select band of Christian philanthropists who only require to be 
convinced of the necessity of extraordinary exertion, and to re- 
ceive an additional stimulus, in order to excite them to a godlike 
liberality. What sacrifice would it be to a man who has £500 
a-year to devote annually £100 to the purposes of religious and 
intellectual improvement? to another who has £1000 a-year to 
devote £300, and to another who has £10,000 to allot £4000 
annually for the same object ? It would not deprive any one of 
them either of the necessaries or of thj? luxuries of life, or of any 
thing that contributes to comfort, honour, or sensitive enjoy- 
ment. It is now high time that the sincerity of a profession of 
Christianity should be tried by the test of pounds, shillings, and 
dollars. We liave beheld numerous instances of ministers and 
others aspiring after the highest stations and the largest' salaries, 
in order to increase their incomes. Let us now see what sacri- 
fices they will make of the wealth which God has given them for 

(30 



350 EXERTIONS PRECEDING THE MILLENNIUM. 

the purpose of promoting his glory in the world. Let us see 
whether God or Mammon, whether the promotion of the best in- 
terests of mankind or " the lust of the flesh and the pride of life," 
rule supreme in their hearts. That man who refuses to come 
forward with his wealth, when it is proved to be requisite for the 
purposes alluded to, ought not to assume the name of a Christian* 
He has never felt the influence of that divine maxim of our Sa- 
viour, " It is more blessed to give than to receive." He virtually 
declares, that " laying up treasure on earth," providing fortunes 
for his family, keeping up a certain rank in society, and living in 
luxurious abundance, are matters of far greater importance than 
the approach of the Millennium and the regeneration of the world. 
If a man is in doubt with respect to the existence of religious 
principle in his soul, I know not a better test than this, by which 
to try the sincerity of his Christian profession: Is he willing, at 
the call of God, to give up a portion of his possessions to His 
service, and even " to forsake all" to prove himself " a follower 
of Christ?" There is a certain class of religionists who are con- 
tinually whining about the low state of religion, and the wicked- 
ness that prevails among all ranks ; and there is another class 
who are frequently talking about the calculations that have been 
made respecting the predicted period of the " latter-day glory ;" 
but when j'^ou ask any of these classes to put their hands in their 
pockets, in order to supply means for improving society and 
hastening the approach of that glory, they will rebound from you 
as the north-poles of two magnets rebound from each other, and 
will tell you, with an air of apathy and spiritual pride, * that the 
spirit is not yet poured out, that man can do nothing of himself, 
and that God's time is not yet come.' If Christians were uni- 
versally to act upon such views, the predicted glory of future 
ages would never be realized. *' It is not for us to know the 
times and the seasons which the Father hath reserved in his own 
power ;" but we know that it is our present duty to consecrate to 
the service of God and the good of mankind all the powers and 
faculties with which we are invested, all the energies we are ca- 
pable of exerting, and all the treasures not essential to our comfort, 
to carry forward the building of the Spiritual Temple, and to 
" prepare the way of the Lord." 

In short, it is now more than time that true Christians were 
rising above the false maxims of the world, the calculating spirit 
of comn>erce, the degrading views of the sons of avarice, and the 
pursuit of earthly honours and distinctions, and acting in con- 
formity to the noble character by which they wish to be distin- 
guished. Let them come forward in the face of the world, and 



INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIAN HEROISM. 351 

declare by their conduct, and their noble generosity, that while they 
enjoy and relish the bounties of the Creator, they despise the vaiii 
pageantry of fashionable life, with all its baubles, and are deter- 
mined to consecrate to rational and religious objects all the super- 
fluities of wealth which have been hitherto devoted to luxury and 
pride. Every Christian hero should be distinguished in society 
(whether he be sneered at or applauded by the men of the world) 
by his detei?i|jined opposition to worldly principles and maxims — 
by his abhorrence of avarice — by his active exertions in the cause 
of philanthropy — and by the liberal portion of his substance 
which he devotes to the cause of education and religion ; and the 
Church ought to exclude from her pale all who refuse, in this way, 
to approve themselves the disciples of Jesus. Better have a 
Church composed of a select band of a hundred " right-hearted 
men," ardent, generous, and persevering, than a thousand luke- 
warm professors, who are scarcely distinguishable from the 
world, and who attempt to serve both God and Mammon. Such 
a select band of Christian heroes, in different parts of the Uni- 
versal Church, " shining as lights in the world, in the midst of a 
perverse generation," and exerting all their influence and power 
in counteracting ignorance and depravity, and promoting the dif- 
fusion of every branch of useful knowledge, would do more to 
prepare the way for the approach of the Millennium, than ten 
times the number of a mixed multitude of professing Christians 
who are sunk into a state of apathy, and have little more of re- 
ligion than the name. Their influence would be powerful in 
every circle in which they moved — they would make the rich 
professors of religion ashamed of their parsimony and their indo- 
lence — they would induce the lukewarm Christian either to come 
cheerfully forward with his wealth and influence, or give up the 
profession of religion altogether, and take his stand at once 
among the men of the world ; and they would stimulate the young 
generation around them to consecrate the vigour of their lives to 
such holy activities. They would doubtless be sneered at by the 
licentious, the avaricious, and the gay ; and even by the proud 
and wealthy ecclesiastic, who has never imbibed the spirit of a Neff 
or an Oberlin ; but every one who is conscious that " his witness 
is in heaven, and his record on high," will look down with a be- 
coming indifference on the scorn of such men, and " hold on his 
way rejoicing." — " Who, then, is a wise man among us, and en- 
dowed with knowledge," — " to whom God hath given riches, and 
the power to use them ?" — let him come forward with his stores 
of knowledge and his treasures of wealth, and dedicate them to 
the service of the Most High ; and bring along with him a few 



852 CONTRIBUTIONS FOR REARING THE TEMPLE. 

more congenial minds to embark in the same undertaking, and 
great shall be his reward. " For they that be wise shall shine 
as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to 
righteousness as the stars for ever and ever." 

It is said, that when the town of Calais, after a siege of twelve 
months, wished to surrender to Edward III. he demanded that 
six of the most considerable citizens should be sent to him, car- 
rying the keys of the city in their hands, bareheaded and bare- 
footed, with ropes about their necks, to be sacrificed to his ven- 
geance. This cruel demand threw the inhabitants into a state of 
unutterable consternation, and they found themselves incapable 
of coming to any resolution in so distressing a situation. At last, 
one of the principal inhabitants, Eustace de St. Pierre, stepped 
forth, and declared himself willing to encounter death for the 
safety of his friends and companions ; another, animated by his 
example, made a like. generous offer; a third and a fourth pre- 
sented themselves to the same fate, and the vs^hole number was 
soon completed. Shall such a sacrifice as this, extending even to 
life itself, be cheerfully made ; and shall we not find as many 
Christians in every town willing to sacrifice the third, or fourth, 
or at least the tenth part of their property for the good of man- 
kind, and the regeneration of society ? The offerings, in ancient 
times, for the service of God, far exceeded any thing that has 
yet been attempted under the Christian economy. The gold and 
silver alone, offered for the rearing of the tabernacle, amounted 
to upwards of £300,000 of the present value of British money, 
besides the brass, the shittim wood, the linen, the embroidered 
curtains, the oynx stones and jewels, and the regular tithe which 
every Israelite annually paid of all that he possessed. When the 
temple was about to be erected, David, along with his princes 
and captains, contributed no less than 108,000 talents of gold, 
and 1,017,000 talents of silver, which amounted to more than 
900 millions of pounds sterling; and the expense of the sacrifices 
ofiered on this occasion amounted to several hundred thousand 
pounds. — 1 Chron. xxii. 14. — xxix. 3 — 9. These offerings were 
a tribute of gratitude to God, the original bestower of every en- 
joyment ; and hence, David, when he blessed the Lord before all 
the congregation, declared, " All things come of thee, and of 
thine own have we given thee. All this store we have prepared 
to build an house for thy holy name cometh of thee, and is all 
thine own.''^ The tithes^ or tenth of their income, were designed 
as an acknowledgment that they had received their estates from 
his free gift, and held them by no other tenure but his bounty. 
They were a kind of quit-rent annually paid to the Great Pro- 



THE PILGRIMS OP NEW ENGLAND. 353 

prietor of the soil, for the maintenance of his worship, and the 
instruction of the people. And why should not the estates of 
Christians be viewed in the same light, and a similar portion of 
them be devoted to the same purpose? The tenth of the incomes 
of the inhabitants of Britain would annually amount to many 
millions ; yet all that has been collected by the British and For- 
eign Bible Society, the most popular of all our religious institu- 
tions, during thirty years of its operation, is only about two mil- 
lions of pounds. Notwithstanding, however, the general apathy 
which exists on this subject, I am disposed to indulge the hope, 
that, ere long, thousands of Christians in different parts of the 
Church, will come cheerfully forward and consecrate, not merely^ 
a tenth, but in many instances, one-AaZ/* of their substance, for 
carrying forward the designs of Providence for the reformation 
of the world. Such offerings are nothing more than what is re- 
quisite for accomplishing this grand object ; and when such a 
spirit of liberality becomes general in the Christian Church, we 
may confidently expect that the happy era is fast approaching, 
when the light of divine truth shall shed its radiance on every 
land — when " The glory of Jehovah shall be revealed, and all 
flesh shall see it together — when the wilderness and the solitary 
place shall be made glad, and when righteousness and praise shall 
spring forth before all nations." 

The inhabitants of New England, I am confident, will be 
among the first to set such a noble example to every other na- 
tion. From small beginnings, they have advanced more rapidly 
in religious and intellectual improvement than any other people 
under heaven ; but they have not yet attained the acme of im- 
provement, "neither are they already perfect ;" but " must press 
forward to the mark," without " looking back" with self-compla- 
cency on the advancement they have hitherto made, and " stretch 
forwards towards those things which are before." There are, per- 
haps, few circumstances in the history of mankind more remarkable 
than the landing of the persecuted pilgrims of New England 
on the rock at Plymouth, and the important consequences which 
have been the result of the settlement of that small and dis- 
tressed colony. About a hundred individuals, driven from their 
native land by the demon of persecution, landed at that point, 
near the middle of winter in 1620, with prospects the most dismal 
and discouraging — fatigued by a long and boisterous voyage — 
forced on a dangerous and unknown shore on the approach of the 
most rigorous season of the year — surrounded with hostile barba- 
rians, without the least hope of human aid — worn out with toil and 
suffering, and without shelter from the rigour of the climate ; so 

30* 



354 EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT PRINCIPLES. 

that, in the course of three or four months, forty-six of their 
number were carried off by mortal sickness. Yet this small band 
of Christian heroes laid the foundation of all the improvements 
in knowledge, religion, liberty, agriculture, and the arts, that dis- 
tinguish the New England States ; which now contain a population 
of nearly two millions of souls. Through their instrumentality, 
and that of their successors, '< the wilderness has been turned into 
fruitful fields," hundreds of cities and towns have been founded, 
colleges and splendid temples have been reared, civil and religious 
liberty established on a solid basis, the education of the young, 
and mental and moral improvement, promoted to an extent be- 
yond that of any other nation upon earth. These circumstances, 
furnish a proof of what a small body of persevering and well- 
principled men can achieve in the midst of difficulties and discou- 
ragements, and a powerful motive to excite us to engage in every 
holy activity. And I trust, the descendants of these pilgrims, 
animated by their noble example, will rise to still greater heights 
of intelligence and virtue, till knowledge become universal — till 
moral evil be completely undermined — till " righteousness run 
down their streets like a river," and till the influence of such 
moral movements be felt among all the families of the earth. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Principles on which a National System of Education should 

be established* 

In attempting to establish any new system, however excellent, 
many obstacles and impediments present themselves, arising from 
the feelings, interests, and preconceived opinions of mankind. In 
establishing such a system of education as we have described, 
one great obstacle would arise in this country from the interests 
and conflicting opinions of religious sectaries. Religion, which 
was intended by its Author to introduce harmony, and to promote 
affection among mankind, would, in all probability, be brought for- 
ward to interrupt the noblest efforts of benevolence in the cause of 
of universal instruction. Every sectary would be apt to insist on its 
perculiar dogmas being recognised, and especially those which 
are more directly patronised by the State would prefer a double 
claim for the superintendence and control of all the arrangements 
connected with the education of the young. Such conflicting 
elements and party interests have already prevented the establish- 
ment of institutions which might have proved beneficial to the 



brougham's education bill. 355 

rising generation, and would, doubtless, mingle themselves with 
any fuU-ire discussions or deliberations that might take place on 

this subject. t i r> u \ 

In the year 1820-21, Mr. Brougham (now Lord Brougham) 
introduced" a Bill into the House of Commons, entitled, "A Bill 
for better providing the means of education for his Majesty's sub- 
jects," which was imbued with a spirit of il liberality and mtoler- 
ance which would have disgraced the darkest ages of the Chris- 
tian era. The following were some of its leading provisions. 
" 1st, No person is capable of being elected as Schoolmaster by 
the Parish, who does not produce a certificate that he is a mem- 
ber of the Church of England, as by laiD established:' In this 
sweeping regulation, it is roundly declared, that, among all the 
six or seven millions of respectable Dissenters ; that, among all 
that class of men who have descended from the congregations 
formed by Baxter, Owen, Watts, Doddridge, and a host of other 
illustrious Divines, renowned for their sterling piety and learnmg ; 
that, among the whole of that class of men who, for the last forty 
years, have shown more disinterested zeal and activity for the 
instruction of the poor than any other class in the British empire ! 
there is not a single individual that deserves to be entrusted with 
the education of youth ! and for no other reason than because 
they have dared to think for themselves, and refused to submit to 
ceremonies and ordinances which are not appointed in the word 
of God. In another regulation, power is given to the clergynian 
of the parish " to call before him the person chosen by the parish, 
and to examine him touching his fitness for the office, and if he 
shall not approve of the person chosen, he may reject his appoint- 
ment" as often as he pleases, without assigning any reason, save 
his own will and pleasure, and/rom this decision there loas to be 
no appeal! which rendered nugatory, and little short of a mere 
farce, the previous election made by the qualified householders 
of the parish. After the teacher was supposed to be approved of 
and fixed in his situation, a set of arbitrary regulations and 
restraints were imposed upon him by " the rector, curate, or other 
minister of the parish." " He may at all times enter the school, 
examine the scholars, question the master touching his govern- 
ment of the school : may direct, from time to time, ichat portions 
of Scripture shall be read, either for lessons or for writing in 
the school, which direction the master is hereby required to fol- 
low." The teacher was also enjoined " to use select passages 
[of the Bible] for lessons, whereby to teach reading and writing, 
and shall teach no other book of religion without consent of the 
resident minister of the parish where such school is held, a7id 



356 LIBERAL VIEWS REGARDING EDUCATION. 

shall use 710 form of prayer or worship in the said school except 
the Lord's Prayer^ or other select passages of the Scriptvres 
aforesaid. ^^ Such regulations and injunctions reduced the teacher 
to something very little superior to a mere machine, or to a slave 
in the hands of a clerical despot. He was every day liable to be 
degraded and insulted in the presence of his scholars, whenever a 
haughty clergyman took it into his head to enter the school, and 
to display his magisterial and consequential airs. By the regu- 
lations enacted in this Bill, the children of Dissenters were like- 
wise degraded. For, although they were to be permitted to 
attend the schools to be established, yet they were to be distin- 
guished, in many respects, as speckled birds, different from those 
of the immaculate churchman, and compelled " to learn the liturgy 
and catechism of the Church, and to attend the Divine service of 
the Church of England," unless their parents '^^ proved themselves 
to be Dissenters from the Established Church, and notified the 
same to the master." Such is only a specimen of the spirit and 
enactments which pervaded " Brougham's Education Bill ;" enact- 
ments repugnant to the views of every liberal mind, and pregnant 
with bigotry and intolerance. It was a fortunate circumstance 
that the bill never passed the House of Commons; otherwise, it 
might have prevented the establishment of a liberal and efficient 
system of education for a century to come.* 

It is to be hoped, that, in any future deliberations on this sub- 
ject, a more noble and liberal spirit will be displayed in the ar- 
rangements connected with education. Indeed, no efficient system 
of national instruction can be established on an exclusive or sect- 
arian principle. Persons of all religious denominations ought to 
be eligible as teachers, visitors, superintendents, and members of 
school-committees, on the sole ground of their intelligence, piety, 
and moral conduct — and of the knowledge they have acquired of 
the true principles of education, and the mode in which they 
should be applied. As, in every country, numerous classes are 
to be found differing in sentiment respecting subordinate points in 

* Lord Brougham has displayed more enlightened views on the subject 
of education, in his speech delivered in the House of Lords, on the 21st 
of May, 1835, and the resolutions founded upon it, than he did in his " Edu- 
cation Bill" of 1821, or even in 1833, vi^hen he declared, that there are 
sufficient means of education in England, and that " he had become a con- 
vert to the opinions of those who thought it would be unwise to disturb a 
state of things which produced such admirable results." It is to be hoped, 
for the good of the nation, that his lordship's suggestions will soon be car- 
ried into effect ; and that the principles on which a national system of edu- 
cation is established, viill be such as to meet the approbation of an enlight- 
ened and religious public. 



PAROCIIIA.L SYSTEM. 



357 



religion, it could not be expected that they would come forward 
either with voluntary subscriptions, or submit, without reluctance, 
to be taxed lor such establishments, if any particular sectary were 
to be invested with the sole superintendence, and all others ex'- 
cluded from a share in the deliberations and arrangements con- 
nected with their operation. Such an arrangement \^ould be an 
act of glaring injustice to the parties excluded, since they have an 
equal right of management on the ground of their subscriptions, 
or of the taxation to which they would be subjected ; it would fos- 
ter invidious distinctions between the different parts of the same 
community ; it would tend to prevent independence of thinking on 
religious subjects, and to promote a spirit of hypocrisy and syco- 
phancy in inducing persons to sacrifice the dictates of conscience 
to the emoluments of office ; it would throw into a state of un- 
merited degradation a large portion of the most respectable char- 
acters in Christian society — for eminent piety, intelligence, and 
benevolence, are not confined to any section of the Christian 
church ; — it would nourish a spirit of alienation among the differ- 
ent portions of religious society, which has too long rankled in the 
human breast; it would prevent some of the most worthy and en- 
lightened characters from coming forward as candidates for the 
office of instructors ; it would interpose a barrier to that harmony 
and affection which should subsist among all ranks and denomi- 
nations of society; and would ultimately frustrate, to a very great 
extent, the grand objects which an enlightened education is intended 
to accomplish. Nothing but a spirit of selfishness and ambition, 
of bigotry and intolerance, inconsistent with the harmony of so- 
ciety and the principles of our holy religion, will again attempt to 
establish education on such illiberal and exclusive principles. In 
this point of view, we cannot avoid reprobating an attempt which 
is now making by certain individuals to extend the system of pa- 
rochial schools, so that there shall be no occasion for teachers of 
any other description. We object to this object on the following 
grounds : 1. Because it is assumed that the education generally 
imparted in parochial schools, and the plan on which instruction 
has usually been communicated, are to be considered as patterns 
of excellence, and, consequently, require only to be more gene- 
rally extended. In the preceding pages, we have endeavoured to 
show, that, in common with most other schools in this country, 
the parochial system is miserably defective and inefficient as to 
the great objects which an enlightened education ought to em- 
brace ; and, in proof of this, we need only appeal to the ignorance 
and vice which have hitherto prevailed, and still prevail, among 
the great mass of the population. That parochial schools have 



858 SUPERINTENDENCE OP EDUCATION. 

been, on the whole, of considerable advantage to Scotland, none 
will deny. But they have not produced the one-tenth part of the 
moral and intellectual effects they might have done, had they been 
established on a more liberal and enlightened basis ; and, conse- 
quently, were the system to be extended, it would tend to prevent, 
for an indefinite period, the establishment of a more enlightened, 
comprehensive, and efficient system of moral and intellectual 
instruction. Besides, there is not one out of a hundred of the pa- 
rochial school-houses furnished with the apartments, apparatus, 
and other accommodations, requisite for carrying forward a plan 
of intellectual instruction. 2. We object, on the ground of the 
exclusive principles on which parochial schools are conducted. 
They are considered as so intimately connected with the estab- 
lished church, that no one -but a member of that church is eligi- 
ble as a parish teacher. Consequently, in attempting to extend 
the parochial system till it is supposed capable of affording instruc- 
tion to the whole population, it is virtually declared, that, among 
all the dissenters in this country, amounting to more than one- 
third of the population, and whose moral and intellectual charac- 
ter stands as high as that of the other two-thirds, there is not one 
who ought to be entrusted with the education of youth, however 
respectable the qualifications he may possess. Those who coun- 
tenance a principle of this kind have, surely, never studied the 
principles of religious liberty or of natural justice, nor opened 
their eyes to " discern the signs of the times." In so far as the 
individuals alluded to have it for their object to improve the plan 
of public instruction, and to raise the qualifications of the teachers, 
we wish them every success ; but the community will certainly 
pause before it gives its sanction to a principle which would de- 
prive nearly one-half of the nation of all interest and superintend- 
ence in regard to an object in which they are all equally con- 
cerned. 

Hitherto, the superintendence of education, both in Scotland 
and England, has been chiefly entrusted to the clergy ; and, at 
the time when our parochial and other scholastic institutions were 
established, there was perhaps a propriety in this arrangement ; 
since, at that period, clergymen were almost the only educated 
persons, and literature was chiefly concentrated in their order. 
But the case is quite different in the present day, when a liberal 
education is not confined to any one rank of society, and when 
classical learning is not considered as the most important ac- 
complishment. There is not, therefore, the same reason why the 
superintendence of education should be exclusively entrusted to 
clergymen, or to any other class of community. We would de- 



MODE OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 359 

precate the idea of the education of the general mass of the po- 
pulation being entrusted exclusively either to the established 
church, or to dissenters of any denomination. Clergymen of all 
denominations should be considered as eligible, in common with 
other intelligent individuals, as superintendents and members of 
Educational Committees ; but experience proves that it is danger- 
ous to the general interests of the community to entrust its affairs, 
especially those which relate to education, to any priviledged class 
of society ; for in such a case the general good of the public has 
frequently been sacrificed to the interests or ambition of a party. 
One of the chief pretences generally set up for exclusive clerical 
superintendence, is the promotion of the interests of religion. It 
is much to be deplored that religion, which was intended to pro- 
mote " peace on earth, and good-will among men," should so 
frequently have been used as a pretence for sowing dissensions in 
society, and violating the principles of natural justice. Whether 
" pure religion and undefiled" is promoted by attempting to raise 
one portion of the community and to crush another, and to throw 
a large body of respectable characters into a state of unmerited 
degradation, on account of their adherence to the dictates of con- 
science — is a question which may be safely left to every unbiassed 
inquirer to decide. — With regard to the religious instruction of 
the young, no difficulty could arise from the circumstance of 
persons belonging to different religious parties having the super- 
intendence of it ; since almost every denomination of Christians 
recognises the essential facts, doctrines, and duties of Christiani- 
ty, which are the only religious topics which ought to be exhibited 
to the young either in public or in private. The man who, over- 
looking such subjects, would attempt to expatiate before the young 
on sectarian points of controversy, ought to be considered as des- 
titute of that prudence and discretion which are requisite for a 
public instructor. If religion were taught, as it ought to be, 
directly from its Original Records, instead of being inculcated 
from human formularies, there would soon be little difference of 
opinion respecting its main and leading objects. The religion of 
Heaven has been communicated to us chiefly in the form of his- 
torical narrations, unfolding to us the Divine dispensations, in 
relation to the fall, the recovery, and the renovation of mankind, 
and embodying certain leading truths and moral precepts, to 
direct our affections and conduct — the great end of which is, not 
to engender strife and a spirit of metaphysical speculation, but to 
counteract moral evil, and to promote union, harmony, and love, 
among all who acknowledge its authority. There is no believer 
in revelation that calls in question the facts of Scripture, the per- 



360 HARMONY OP SECTARIES IN AMERICA. 

fections of the Deity it unfolds— ^the death, resurrection, and as- 
cension of Christ — the immortality of the soul — a future state of 
punishments and rewards — or the propriety of the moral princi- 
ples it inculcates. These are the leading topics of revelation ; 
and to insinuate that such subjects cannot be taught directly from 
the Scriptures themselves, without the aid of human formularies, 
is nothing short of throwing a reflection on the wisdom of God, 
on account of the manner in which he has communicated his will, 
and of affixing a libel on the character of the inspired writers, as 
if their writings were not sufficiently plain and perspicuous. 

The efficiency of religious instruction deduced from the Scrip- 
tures alone, is clearly proved from the mode of tuition in infant 
schools. In these schools, religion is taught by familiar descrip- 
tions and details of scriptural facts — by illustrations, taken from 
Scripture and the scenes of nature, of the perfections of God — 
and by enforcing the moral precepts of the Bible on the young, 
and showing how they ought to be exemplified in all their inter- 
courses with each other. Now, I appeal to every one Avho has 
witnessed the religious knowledge of the children in these schools, 
and its influence upon their conduct, if this mode of tuition is not 
infinitely preferable, as to its practical effects, to the usual method 
of instruction by catechism, or any other formulary. Let us take 
a number of children at random from any common school, who 
have learned the "Shorter," or any other catechism, from be- 
ginning to end, and compare their knowledge and feelings in 
reo-ard to religion with those of the children of a well-conducted 
infant school, and the superiority of the infant school children 
will be strikingly apparent, even although they are much younger 
than the former. — Should parents, however, wish to inculcate 
upon their children the peculiar tenets of the sect to which they 
belong, they have an opportunity of doing so at home, or by 
means of the pastors belonging to that denomination to which 
they are attached ; but, in public schools, to attempt the inculca- 
tion of sectarian opinions, would be equally injurious to the inter- 
ests of religion and the cause of universal education. This was 
attempted by the Church of England, in the enactments contained 
in Brougham's "Education Bill," and the same principle led the 
dignitaries of that church to oppose the Lancaslerian system of 
education, and to patronise that of Dr. Bell, in which the peculiar 
tenets of the Episcopal church were to be exclusively inculcated. 

That Christians of different denominations may cordially co- 
operate in the arrangements of education, appears from various 
existing facts. In the Northern States of America, as already 
noticed, education is far more general than in this country, and 



HARMONY OF SECTARIES IN AMERICA. 361 

conducted on more rational and enlightened plans ; and persons 
of all denominations in religion co-operate in its superintendence. 
In the 24th " Annual Report of the Trustees of the Public School 
Society of New York, for 1829," it is stated, among many other 
interesting facts, that " The Board of Education consists of 
members of eight or ten religious denominations, all acting with 
entire harmony'''' — that " they discharge the important duties of 
their trust, with a single eye to the public good" — and that they 
received the sanction of " an independent set of examiners, who 
have repeatedly inspected the schools, and are acquainted with 
the operations of the Board" — who express in their Report " their 
full confidence that the literary, moral, and religious instruction, 
calculated to fit the young for the duties of life, and to prepare 
them for the happiness of futurity, is properly attended to, and 
the school monies strictly and most beneficially applied to their 
legitimate purposes." This board has the superintendence of 
"21 schools, with 21 principal and 24 assistant teachers, and 
6007 children," the expense of which amounted to 62,000 dol- 
lars : besides which there were above 450 private, charity, and 
other schools in the city of New York. — We know, too, that the 
" British and Foreign School Society" is conducted on similar 
principles — its Directors consisting of persons belonging to the 
established church and the various denominations of dissenters ; 
and the same is the case with the institutions for infant education 
which have been lately established in many of our populous 
towns. The hand-bill, announcing the objects of the Model In- 
fant School, Glasgow, which was framed by the Rev. Dr. Welsh, 
then of St. David's church, states, as one of the objects of this 
institution, that it is " for the reception of children from the age 
of two to that of six years, with the view of imbuing their minds 
with the knowledge of religious truths," — and that " the plan of 
communicating religious truths is by the narratives, the precepts, 
and the plainest announcements of Scripture." In short, the 
liberal plan now suggested has been adopted in all its extent in 
the kingdom of Prussia, where a national system of education 
has been established in which all classes of religionists, whether 
Protestants or Catholics, have an equal interest, and which, for 
more than half a century, has been conducted with the greatest 
regularity and harmony. So that there is no impossibility in 
persons belonging to different religious persuasions co-operating 
in the business of education, where there is a sincere desire to 
promote the improvement of the young, and the best interests of 
general society. 

But should it be found impossible to induce the dominant sect 

31 



362 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 

in any country to co-operate with dissenters in the arrangements 
of education, perhaps the following might be the most eligible 
plan of procedure ; — Let the government allot a sum adequate to 
the erection and endowment of all the schools requisite for an 
enlightened and efficient system of education — let this sum be 
divided between churchmen and dissenters, in a fair proportion, 
according to their respective numbers — and let the application 
of this sum, and the details respecting the patronage of the 
schools, the qualifications of teachers, and the mode of instruc- 
tion, be left to the respective part^ps, to be arranged as their 
/judgment and circumstances may direct — specifying, however, 
some of the grand and leading principles on which the schools 
must be established. A plan of this kind would, indeed, still pre- 
serve the invidious distinction between churchmen and dissenters; 
but it would be infinitely preferable to bestowing the whole 
patronage and superintendence of education on any one sectary 
or class of men whatever. — Should government refuse to grant 
any pecuniary assistance to such an object, dissenters and all 
others have it in their power, by coming forward, in one grand 
combination, with voluntary contributions, to accomplish this 
noble design, independently of aid from any power under heaven ; 
provided they are willing to make some of those small sacrifices 
formerly suggested. (See page 350.) And if they will not stand 
forward as bold champions, with their purses in their hands, 
ready to be delivered up for the support of this good cause, they 
will declare themselves to be unworthy of the name of Christians, 
or of lovers of their species, and will deservedly be deprived 
of all the advantages, in time and eternity, which might re- 
sult from the accomplishment of this object, to themselves and 
to their offspring, both in the present and future generations. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
Maxims, or First Principles in Education. 

I. The idea should go before the word which expresses it — 
or, in other words, A clear and distinct conception of an object 
should be impressed upon the mind, before the name or terms 
which express it be committed to memory. 

This may be considered as the first and fundamental principle 
of intellectual instruction ; and, if admitted, the following rule 
should be strictly adhered to in the business of education; — Let 
no passages of any book be committed to memory before the 



MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 363 

leading ideas they contain be clearly understood. If this prin- 
ciple were universally introduced into education, it would overturn 
almost every system of instruction which has hitherto prevailed 
both in secular and religious tuition. An opposite principle has 
almost uniformly been acted upon ; and hence, catechisms, 
psalms, hymns, grammar rules, chapters of the Bible, and 
speeches in the Roman senate, have been prescribed as memorial 
tasks, before any of the ideas contained in them could be appre- 
ciated. We may ask, in the name of all that is wise and rational, 
Of what use is it to stock and overburden the memories of chil- 
dren with a medley of words to which no correct ideas are at- 
tached? Although a child could commit twenty catechisms to 
memory, or could even repeat the whole of the Old and New 
Testaments, what purpose would it serve, if he did not enter into 
the spirit and meaning of the truths therein recorded? I have 
conversed with an individual who could repeat the whole Bible 
from beginning to end, and yet was entirely ignorant of the 
meaning of almost every proposition it contained, and its most 
interesting truths appeared to have made no impression upon his 
heart. As in the original formation of language, the objects of 
nature must Jlrst have been observed and known before words or 
signs were fixed upon to distinguish them ; so, in communicating 
the elements of thought, the objects of thought must first be 
recognized and described before the terms and epithets which ex- 
press their natures and qualities be committed to memory. In- 
stead of obtruding a medley of words before they are understood,, 
upon the memories of the young, they should be made to feel a 
desire for terms to express their ideas ; and, in this case, the ideas 
and the words which express them wil^afterwards be inseparably 
connected. 

II. In the process of instruction. Nothing (if possible) should 
be assigned to the young merely as tasks. 

Every thing prescribed for the exercise of the faculties, should 
be represented both as a duty and as a pleasure ; and if the young 
understand the nature and objects of their scholastic exercises, 
and the manner in which they should be prosecuted, they will find 
a pleasure in endeavouring to surmount every apparent difficulty. 
I once knew a gentleman, the Rector of a grammar school, who, 
on his admission to his office, boasted that he would conduct his 
school without inflicting any corporal punishment — instead of 
which he prescribed from twenty to sixty or eighty lines of Vir- 
gil or Horace, as memorial tasks — and, when not accurately re- 
peated, increased their number. But this practice had no other 



304 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 

tendency than to excite revengeful feelings, and to produce disgust 
at the process of learning. 

III. Every thing that is cheerful and exhilarating to the 
young should be associated with the business of education. 

Hence, school-rooms should be spacious, light, and airy — com- 
fortably heated during winter, and erected in delightful and com- 
manding situations. The school-books should be neatly printed, 
and enlivened with pictures and engravings coloured from nature 
— amusing and instructive experiments should frequently be ex- 
hibited — and the pupils should be occasionally gratified with ex- 
cursions into interesting parts of the country, to view the beauties 
of nature and enjoy the bounties of Providence; so that all their 
scholastic exercises may be connected with delightful associations. 

IV. In the practice of teaching, the principle of Emulation 
should be discarded. 

By a principle of emulation I mean, the exciting of the young 
to exertion from the hope of reward when they excel their com- 
panions in intellectual excellence, or from the fear of punishment 
or degradation when they fall beneath them in industry and ac- 
quirements. Many teachers have asserted that they could not 
conduct education with any effect without the aid of this princi- 
ple. But, whatever effect it may have in an intellectual point of 
view, it almost uniformly produces an injurious effect on the moral 
temperament of the young, on their companions whom they excel, 
and on their parents and guardians, who are led to form false es- 
timates of their progress and acquirements by the prizes they re- 
ceive and the places they occupy in their respective classes. One 
grand end of instruction, which has been too much overlooked, is 
to cultivate and regulate the moral powers — to produce love, af- 
fection, concord, humility, self-denial, and other Christian graces. 
But the principle of emulation has a tendency to produce jealousy, 
envy, ambition, hatred, and other malignant passions, and to ex- 
hibit intellectual acquisitions as of far greater importance than 
moral excellence. Besides, it is on\y a very feiv in every class 
that can be stimulated to exertion by this principle, and these few 
are generally of such a temperament as to require their ambitious 
dispositions to be restrained rather than excited. In the " Ame- 
rican Annals of Education," for January, 1833, there is an ex- 
cellent paper on this subject by Miss C. E. Beecher, of Newport, 
Rhode Island, a lady well known as an efficient teacher. After 
enumerating the evils which uniformly flow from the principle of 
emulation, she states the following motives, as those which she 
has found " not only equal, but much more efficient, in reference 
to all the objects to be gained in education :" — 1. Personal influ- 



MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 365 

eticc — endeavouring to gain the esteem, the affection, and the 
confidence of the pupils," &c. In this connection she justly re- 
marks, " that commendation for improvement needs to be prac- 
tised much more frequently than reproof for deficiency. 2. By 
habitual appeals to the Bihle as the rule of rectitude, and to con- 
science as the judge. 3. By cultivating a love of knowledge for 
its own sake, that is, for the pleasure it imparts ; and also for the 
sake of the increased good it will enable us to do for our fellow- 
beings. 4. By efforts to form a correct public sentiment in school, 
so that it shall be unpopular to do wrong. 5. By appeals to pa- 
rental influence, and that of other friends. This is accomplished 
by transmitting frequent accounts both of deficiency and improve- 
ment to the friends of the pupils. 6. By cultivating in the pupils 
a sense of obligation to God, of his constant inspection, and of 
his interest in all their concerns." These principles, (which are 
more particularly explained and amplified in the paper referred 
to,) she adds, " I have chiefly depended upon during the last three 
or four years of my experience as a teacher. Every year has 
added to my conviction of their efficacy, and every year has in- 
creased my satisfaction that the principle of emulation has been 
banished with no consequent evil, and much increase of good. 

Mr. Morgan, in his late " Address to the Proprietors of the Uni- 
versity of London," expresses sentiments in accordance with the 
above. Speaking on the subject of prizes, he says, " A prize is 
the least effectual mode of accomplishing the desired object ; it is 
founded on injustice, inasmuch as it heaps honours and emolu- 
ments on those to whom nature has already been most bountiful, 
and whose enjoyments are multiplied and increasing in a greater 
ratio than others by the more easy acquisition of knowledge." 
** Praise, and invidious comparisons, are only other forms of the 
same principle, alike fruitfiil in envy, pride, scorn, and bitter neg- 
lect. In the curiosity of children, there is a sufficient and a natu- 
ral stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and we live in a world 
abounding in the means of useful and pleasurable gratifications. 
All that is required of preceptors is to aid the development of the 
faculties with affection and judgment." A certificate of diligence 
and good conduct seems to be all that is necessary to distinguish 
from the vicious, the idle, and slothful, those who have employed 
their time and talents in a proper manner. 

V. Corporal punishments should he seldom or never injJicted 
— and, when they are determined upon as the last resort, they 
should be inflicted with calmness and affection. 

There is something revolting and degrading in corporal pun- 
ishments, and the necessity of resorting to them generally indi- 

31* 



366 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 

cates, that there had been a want of proper training in the earlier 
stages of life. It is vain to imagine, that children can be whipped 
either into learning or religion ; and, if an enlightened and judi- 
cious mode of tuition were universally adopted, there would sel- 
dom be any necessity for resorting to such a stimulus. But in 
the modes of teaching which have most generally prevailed, cor- 
poral punishments are almost indispensable. In the German 
"Pedagogic Magazine," for 1833, we are told that "there died 
lately in Swabia, a schoolmaster, who, for 51 years, had super- 
intended an institution with old-fashioned severity. From an 
average inferred from recorded observations, one of the ushers 
calculated, that, in the course of his exertions, he had given 911,500 
canings, 124,000 floggings, 209,000 custodes, 136,000 tips with 
the ruler, 10,200 boxes on the ear, and 22,700 tasks to get by 
heart. It was farther calculated, that he had made 700 boys 
stand on peas, 600 kneel on a sharp edge of wood, 5000 wear the 
fool's cap, and 1708 hold the rod," — amounting in all to 1,421,208 
punishments, which, allowing five days for every week, would 
average above a hundred punishments every day. There is 
something extremely revolting in the idea of such a series of pun- 
ishments being connected with learning ; and we may justly infer, 
that, however much classical learning may have been advanced, 
very little useful knowledge or moral principle was communicated 
in that seminary. For, a system of moral and intellectual 
instruction, calculated to allure the minds of the young, is alto- 
gether incompatible with such Gothic rudeness and severity.* 

VI. Children should not be long confined in school — and never 
longer than they are actively employed in it. — A school ought 
never to serve the purpose of a prison. If the junior classes are 
incapable of preparing their lessons by themselves, they should 
either be provided with some amusing toys or picture books, or 
be turned out to romp about in the open air, or under a covered 
shed in rainy weather, and called in when their lessons are to be 
explained. 

VII. Young people should always be treated as rational crea- 
tures., and their opinions occasionally solicited as to certain 
points and scholastic arrangements. The reasons of the treat- 
ment they receive, and of the exercises prescribed, in so far as 

* Corporal punishments have generally a hardening effect on the minds 
both of young and old. A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was 
very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was, nevertheless, an audacious 
dog. One day the old vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which 
he had made of foreign steel, but could not succeed. " Horseivhip it, 
father," exclaimed the youth, -'ii that will not harden it, nothing will." 



MECrtANtCs' INSTITUTIONS. 367 

they are able to appreciate them, should occasionally be stated, 
and explained and illustrated. 

VIII. Reproofs should always be tendered with the utmost 
calmness and mildness. — When they are uttered in passion, and 
with looks of fury, they seldom produce any good effect, and not 
unfrequehtly excite a spirit of revenge against the reprover. 

IX. One great object of education should be to jix the atten- 
tion on the subjects we wish to explain and elucidate, — On the 
proper exercise of the faculty of attention depends almost all our 
improvement in knowledge and virtue. Even the senses are im- 
proved by the exercise of this faculty. Hence the peculiar deli- 
cacy of touch observable in the blind, and the quick-sightedness 
of the deaf; hence the distinct perception of distant objects ac- 
quired by sailors, and of delicate and minute objects by watch- 
makers and jewellers, — in all which cases the attention has been 
specially directed to particular objects. It was by fixing his atten- 
tion on the subject, or " continually thinking about it," that Newton, 
as he himself declared, discovered the laws of the planetary mo- 
tions, and was enabled to unfold the true system of the world. 
Hence the propriety of presenting sensible objects to the view of 
children — of exhibiting before them interesting experiments, and 
of having their books adorned with lively and accurate engravings. 
Hence, too, the propriety of teaching them to notice every object 
within the reach of their vision, and to mark every minute change 
that takes place in the form, colour, and situation, of the objects 
around them, and to give an account of what they may have 
seen or heard in any of their excursions : all which circum- 
stances have a tendency to induce a habit of attention^ without 
which there can be no solid improvement in any department of 
instruction. 



CHAPTER XV. 
Mechanics' Institutions* 



On these institutions I intended to offer a few particular re- 
marks, and to suggest some arrangements by which they might 
be rendered more extensively useful than they have hitherto 
been, both in a moral and intellectual point of view, but as this 
volume has already swelled to a considerable size, I shall confine 
myself to a very few general observations. 

It is now more than twenty years since I had an opportunity 
of suggesting the establishment of such institutions, under the 
designation of " Literary and Philosophical Societies^ adapted 



368 mechanics' institutions. 

to the middling and lower ranks of the community" The de 
tails in relation to this subject, consisting of a series of five sue 
cessive papers, were published in the London " Monthly Maga- 
zine''^ for the year 1814 — more than eight years before any 
mechanics' institutions were organized in this country.* Although 
these papers have seldom been referred to, in the history of me- 
chanics' institutions, yet the author is aware that they were the 
means of suggesting, to certain individuals, the idea of establishing 
such societies ; and, not above a year or two after their publication, 
a society was organized in the vicinity of London, on the plan and 
principles suggested in these papers, of which the author wag 
elected an honorary member. Instead of inserting, in this place, 
the substance of these papers, as was originally intended, I shall 
merely give a short sketch of their contents. 

In the first communication, after a few introductory observations 
in reference to existing associations, and other particulars con- 
nected with the dissemination of knowledge, the following, among 
many other advantages, were pointed out as likely to flow from 
the extensive establishment of such institutions: — 1. They would 
serve to unite and concentrate the scattered rays of genius, which 
might otherwise be dissipated, and enable them to act with com^ 
bined vigour and energy in the discovery and the propagation of 
useful knowledge. 2. They would tend to promote the rapid 
advancement of general science ; for if the labours of those so- 
cieties which already exist have produced a powerful effect on the 
progress of science, much more might be expected were their 
number increased to eighty or a hundred fold. 3. They would 
have a tendency to produce an extensive diffusion of rational 
information among the general mass of society, particularly 
among those in the inferior walks of life, by which the narrow 
conceptions, superstitutious notions, and vain fears, which so gene- 
rally prevail, might be gradually removed, and a variety of useful 
hints and rational views suggested, which would tend to elevate 
and ennoble the mind, and promote domestic convenience and 
comfort. 4. They would induce a taste for intellectual pleasures 
and rational enjoyment, in which those hours generally spent in 
Jistlessness, foolish amusements, and the pursuits of dissipation, 
might be profitably emploj'^ed, and, consequently, the sum of 

* See " Monthly Magazine," vol. xxxvii. for April and July, 1814, pp. 
219, 507, and vol. xxxviiL for August and September, 1814, pp. 23, 121, 
and for January, 1815, p. 503. These communications occupy more than 
22 closely printed columns, and contain several minute details in relation 
to what should he the leading' objects of such institutions, ajid the means 
hy which they might be established. 



LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. 369 

general happiness augmented. 5. If properly conducted, they 
could not fail of producing a benign influence on the state of 
morals and of general society. As vice is the natural offspring 
of ignorance, so true virtue can only flow from elevated and en- 
lightened principles; and, where such principles exist, their opera- 
tion, in a greater or less degree, will always appear. The habits 
of order, punctuality, and politeness, which would prevail in such 
associations, would naturally be carried into the other departments 
of life, and produce their corresponding effects. The frequent 
intercourse of men of different parties and professions, associated 
for the purpose of promoting one common object, would gradually 
vanquish those mutual prejudices and jealousies which too fre- 
quently exist even in cultivated minds, and a liberal, candid, and 
humane spirit, would be cherished and promoted. Society would 
thus acquire a new polish, and wear a different aspect from what 
it now exhibits in the inferior ranks of life ; more especially, if 
the means now suggested be combined with the operation of 
Christian principles* 

The other communications illustrated the arrangements and 
regulations requisite in the operation of such institutions, particu- 
larly in relation to the following circumstances. 

I. The Admission of Members. — In regard to this circumstance, 
the two following extremes should be guarded against — the indis- 
criminate admission of all who may wish to become members, 
whatever may be their literary or moral characters — and the giv- 
ing an undue preference to certain individuals, on account of their 
rank, who have not a corresponding share of common sense and 
literary acquirements. In a literary society, the distinctions of 
rank ought to be, in a great measure, if not altogether, overlook- 
ed ; while, at the same time, the utmost decorum and politeness 
ought always to prevail. It is now high time that human char- 
acters were estimated according to their real and intrinsic worth, 
independent of those external and adventitious circumstances 
with which they may be accompanied ; and it will be highly be- 
coming in rational associations to set an example of estimating 
the characters of men on principles purely of a moral and intel- 
lectual nature. Although money is a useful article in all societies, 
yet it would be inexpedient to solicit any individuals, not otherwise 
qualified to become members, chiefly with a view of their con- 
tributing to the pecuniary interests of the association. Such per- 
sons would not only be a dead weight upon the society, but, by 
the undue influence they would have, might tend to impede its 
progress, and prevent its chief design from being accomplished.* 
Besides their literary acquirements, the moral qualifications of 



370 DISCUSSIONS IN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. 

those who desire admission ought not to be altogether overlooked. 
Knowledge is chiefly desirable in proportion as it is useful. If it 
does not lead its possessor to propriety of moral conduct, its utility, 
at least to him, may be much questioned. In all rational institu- 
tions, the melioration of the moral characters and dispositions of 
mankind ought to form as prominent an object as the illumination 
of their understandings. 

II. The Subjects of Discussion, and the mode of conducting 
it. — Every subject which has a tendency to induce a habit of 
rational thinking, to elevate and ennoble the mind, and to present 
sublime and interesting objects of contemplation — every subject 
which tends to unfold the wise arrangements of nature, and the 
laws by which the economy of the universe is regulated, which 
displays the attributes of the Divinity, and leads the mind up- 
wards " from Nature to Nature's God ;" — every subject which 
tends to promote the progress of science, the advancement of 
the liberal and mechanical arts, and the moral improvement of 
mankind, might occasionally become topics of discussion in a 
society constituted on the principles to which I have alluded. 
These subjects would embrace the prominent parts of natural 
history, geography, astronomy, experimental philosophy, chem- 
istry, natural theology, ethics, education, arts and manufactures, 
physiology, domestic economy, and similar branches of know- 
ledo^e. Although party-politics, and sectarian views of religion, 
should be excluded, yet there are certain general topics connect- 
ed with these subjects, which might form legitimate subjects of 
discussion : such as the general principles of legislation, the 
causes of the wealth of nations, the effects of different modes of 
taxation, and other branches of political economy — the character 
and attributes of the Deity, the principles of moral action, the 
immortality of the soul, \.hQ facts of sacred history, and the evi- 
dences by which they are supported — the harmony of nature 
and revelation, and the means by which the character of the hu- 
man race may be elevated and improved, and the moral world 
regenerated. 

in the discussion of such subjects, there are four different modes 
which might be occasionally adopted. — 1. The first mode is that 
o^ public lectures. A lecture might be delivered once a week, 
or fortnight, or oftener, according to circumstances, on some in- 
teresting subject of natural history, chemistry, or experimental 
philosophy, accompanied with experiments. In order to raise a 
sum for remunerating an intelligent lecturer, persons not mem- 
bers of the society might be invited to attend, on the condition of 
paying a small contribution, the members at the same time, con- 



DISCUSSIONS IN nilLOSOnilCAL SOCIETIES. 371 

tributing a little, though in a smaller proportion. In order to ex- 
cite attention, and to stimulate the exercise of the rational faculty, 
an examination of such of the auditors as chose to submit to it, 
on the different particulars detailed in the lecture, might take place 
either at the conclusion of the lecture, or at some future hour; 
and, at the same time, an opportunity offered of putting questions 
to the lecturer, and stating any difficulties or objections which 
may have occurred to them, in order to their solution. — 2. By the 
more intelligent members composing essays on particular sub- 
jects,, and reading them to the society. For the benefit of young 
writers, it might be proper, in a candid and friendly manner,, to 
point out the grammatical blunders, improper phrases, erroneous 
statements, or other improprieties which may be found in the 
essay ; and the writer ought to consider such hints as so much 
new and useful information, by the help of which he may be 
enabled to render his future compositions more correct. In order 
to make a respectable figure as writers of essays, particular at- 
tention should be given to the arts of grammar and composition ; 
and exercises and instructions on these subjects might occasionally 
form a part of the business of the society. As some essays may 
occasionally be read of which the society may wish to have copies 
for future inspection, in order to save the trouble of the secretary 
transcribing them, it might be proper to recommend that every es- 
say be written on paper of the same size, so that they might after- 
wards be bound in regular volumes, to be preserved as part of the 
records of the society. In this way, the literary communications 
made to the society would be recorded in the hand-writings of their 
respective authors, free of those errors which might be occasioned 
in their transcription by another hand. — 3. Another method of 
discussion might be by Forensic disputations. In this case, a ques- 
tion is proposed and stated, and opposite sides of the question are 
supported by different speakers. This method has its advantages 
and its disadvantages. Its disadvantages are, that persons, in their 
eagerness to support the side they have taken, are sometimes apt 
to contend more for victory than for truth ; and, unless they watch 
over their tempers, are ready to fall into a spirit of altercation 
and ill-humour, and to throw out unhandsome epithets against 
their opponents. Many persons, too, from their having ably sup- 
ported the erroneous side of a question, have been insensibly led 
to adopt that opinion, though, in the first instance, they defended 
it merely for the sake of argument. Its advantages are, that it 
excites interest and attention, exercises the reasoning faculty, and 
aflbrds an opportunity to every member of taking a part in the 
discussion. It may, when properly and calmly conducted, sug- 



372 DISCUSSIONS IN rHILOSOnilCAL SOCIETIES. 

gest useful information, and throw light on many obscure and 
interesting subjects. It has a tendency to teach persons not to be 
too rash in adopting opinions till they have weighed the objec- 
tions that may be brought against them. As the discovery of 
truth ought to be the chief object in all literary debates — in order 
to insure this object, an intelligent person, who has taken no direct 
share in the debate, might be appointed to sum up the arguments 
on both sides, and endeavour to balance them, in order to ascer- 
tain on which side the truth seems to lie. In certain cases, it will 
be found, that the truth does not lie directly on either side, but in 
a middle position between the two extremes. This mode of dis- 
cussion, when adopted, should be used with extreme caution, with 
an equable temper, and with a sincere desire to discover truth, 
wherever it may be found ; otherwise, it may be attended with 
hurtful consequences. — 4. Another mode of discussion is, the de- 
termining of a question by an induction of facts or reasons, in 
order to illustrate a particular subject ; or, in other words, by an 
inquiry into causes and effects. For example, suppose such ques- 
tions proposed as the following: — What are the different causes 
which operate in the production of rain ? Ou what princij)les are 
we to account for the various phenomena attendant on thunder- 
storms'? By what means may the stroke of lightning be averted? 
What are the various useful purposes to which the late discoveries 
respecting the gases may be applied ? By what means, and on 
what principles, may human beings be transported from one place 
to another with a more rapid motion than has hitherto been effect- 
ed ? What are the best means for undermining the principles of 
avarice, and counteracting its effects? What are the most efficient 
methods for diffusing knowledge, and improving the moral and 
intellectual powers of man ? On such questions, every member 
might be called upon to suggest whatever occurs to him that has 
a tendency to elucidate the subject, and to determine the inquiry ; 
and the remarks of all the members who deliver their sentiments, 
when combined, could not fail to throw some light on an interest- 
ing question, or, at least, they would tend to excite to further 
inquiry at a future period. 

ill. The Funds of the Society, and the purposes to which 
they might he applied. — Money is a necessary article in every 
association, and is indispensable in the vigorous prosecution of 
scientific objects. Little of it, however, is required for rational 
and literary purposes, compared with what is spent in the pursuits 
of folly and dissipation. Although it is not usual in most societies 
to make any difference in the sums to be paid by every member, 
yet it appears somewhat unreasonable, that a person whose income 



FUNDS OF PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. 373 

is known to be very limited should contribute as much as one 
whose income is five or six times greater. A minimum, however, 
ought to be fixed, below which the poorest member should not be 
permitted to go, except in very singular cases. Those whose in- 
comes are known to be considerable should be requested to give 
separate subscriptions, besides the regular quarterly or annual 
fees, for the purpose of more speedily accomplishing the objects 
of the institution. Two or three different rates of annual fees or 
subscriptions might be fixed upon, a maximum, a middle, and a 
minimum, and every member left at liberty to choose that rate 
which suits his circumstances. Nor ought those who are unable 
to pay the maximum rate, or to give separate subscriptions, to be, 
on this account, considered as inferior to their fellows; for it is no 
disgrace for a man to be poor, if he is honest, prudent, and indus- 
trious, and has not wasted his substance in folly or dissipation ; 
as it is no honour to a fool to possess wealth which he was not 
instrumental in acquiring. — The purposes to which the funds of a 
literary institution may be applied are such as the following : — 

1. The purchase of hooks. — These are the grand depositories 
of human knowledge, and, therefore, it should be the first object 
of every literary establishment to procure a judicious selection of 
the best books, in every department of science. In regard to the 
general subjects of the books to be purchased, it may be proper 
that every member have it in his power to give his vote and 
opinion ; but the selection of the individual books on any particu- 
lar science, should perhaps be intrusted to a committee composed 
of such members as are best acquainted with the present state 
of literature. — 2. The purchase of philosophical instruments. It 
may perhaps be a considerable time before the funds shall permit 
the purchase of an extensive apparatus of this kind, yet if a cer- 
tain portion of the funds be appropriated to this object, in the 
course of 20 years 500 guineas might be devoted to it, supposino- 
the society to consist of 100 members, every one contributing 
annually half a guinea, and that only one half of the funds are 
appropriated to this purpose. Nor should it be considered as an 
object too grand and extensive, to have ultimately in view the 
erection of an observatory for astronomical observations, and a 
complete apparatus for illustrating the doctrines of chemistry, na- 
tural philosophy, and all the other departments of natural science. 
Specimens of interesting objects in botany, zoology, mineralogy, 
and geology, might also be procured, along with models of use- 
ful machines for illustrating mechanical powers and operations. 
Where there is an ardent love of science, and an animated per- 
severance in prosecuting its objects, all the ends now stated 

32 



374 ruBLiCATioNs of litkrary societies. 

might, from small beginnings, be in due time accomplished. — 3. 
Another purpose to which the funds may be applied might be, 
the distribution of premiums to those who solve any difficult and 
useful problem, or who produce the best essay on a given subject. 
If the propriety of bestowing premiums in such cases be admitted, 
the following principle might be adopted as to the nature of the 
premium ; namely, that it be such as can be procured at a mode- 
rate expense, and, at the same time, be of some utility to the per- 
son to whom it is adjudged. Instead of a gold or a silver medal, 
— a pocket compass, a sun-dial, a pocket telescope, a small mi- 
croscope, a quadrant, a case of mathematical instruments, a ter- 
restrial or celestial globe, a tellurian, or any useful article which 
may best suit the taste of the successful candidate, might be 
given as a premium ; and along with it a medal of copper, pew- 
ter, or brass, or an engraved card, with an appropriate inscription. 
IV. The Publications of the Society. — A considerable time 
would probably elapse before such a society would have it in its 
power to communicate any new discoveries worthy of the atten- 
tion of the scientific world. Yet this consideration ought not, 
perhaps, to deter the society from exhibiting some of its transac- 
tions to public view. In the progress of the institution, after the 
lapse of a few years, a selection might be^made of the best essays 
that had previously been communicated, and published in a neat 
duodecimo volume, with an historical account of the progress of 
the institution since its commencement, and the manner in which 
its operations are conducted, together with an abstract of the 
general progress of science during the same period, which might 
be collected from certain scientific journals. It would also be 
useful to give a brief statement of what has hitherto been dis- 
covered in relation to the different sciences, with hints respecting 
the desiderata, or things which still remain to be discovered — 
which would tend to direct the attention of the rational inquirer 
to those particular investigations by which science might be ad- 
vanced, and carried forvv'ard to perfection. Such a volume, 
though it might not embody any new deductions, or discoveries, 
might, notwithstanding, be of considerable utility in different re- 
spects. It might convey new and useful information to those who 
are just commencing the study of science, and who have no ac- 
cess to the more learned transactions of other societies ; it might 
become a depository for inserting accounts of interesting facts, 
Hnd of researches that may be made in that part of the country 
where the society is situated ; it might tend to excite the rational 
])art of mankind in other cities and towns to form similar estab- 
ii;;ihments, and to cultivate a mutual correspondence ; and, as it 



CORRESPONDENCE OF SOCIETIES* 375 

would probably obtain a considerable circulation in the surround- 
ing districts, (being printed in a cheap and economical form,) it 
might diffuse new information in different quarters where more 
expensive volumes would never have found admittance. 

V. Correspondence and intercourse of the members of the 
different societies. — It might be of considerable use for promoting 
the object of these institutions, that the societies, in their corporate 
capacity, and individual members, should correspond with each 
other, both personally and by literary communications — and that 
the members of one society, when occasionally residing in the 
locality of another, should be admitted gratis to all the privileges 
of that other society ; such as, the use of the library, the inspec- 
tion of the museum, and attendance on lectures. In order to 
designate the members of all such societies, and to prevent the 
necessity of a circumstantial proof of their belonging to similar 
institutions, every member might be furnished by his own society 
with an engraved card or ticket, or rather with a medal of brass 
or pewter, having the society's name and motto engraved on it, 
and to which the name of the person, at his admission, might also 
be appended. The advantages which would result from the pos- 
session of such a document are sufficiently obvious. It would 
form, as it were, a bond of union among all the lovers of science 
in different parts of the empire, and enable them with facility to 
recognise each other. Travellers, whether on business or for 
pleasure, when visiting the different towns in the line of their 
route, would thus obtain an easy access to the society of persons 
of congenial minds ; useful hints would be reciprocally commu- 
nicated, and an interesting correspondence occasionally formed, 
which might be productive of many pleasing and important con- 
sequences, both to the indtviduals and to the respective societies. 
They would thus feel themselves more at home, devoid of that 
ennvi which one so frequently feels in strange places, and have 
an opportunity of improving those hours which might otherwise 
be dissipated in listlessness, to rational and scientific purposes. 
In short, by this means, the idea suggested by the celebrated Lord 
Verulam, of uniting the learned world into one great republic, 
might be in some measure realised ; every person of intelligence 
carrying along with him his badge of distinction, and thus indi- 
cating- to all consfenial minds, the grand association to which he 
belongs. 

The present is an age in which scientific associations have 
rapidly increased. The principle of the division of labour seems 
now to be judiciously acted upon in scientific investigations, by 
the formation of societies which have chiefly one great object to 



376 SCIENCE AND RELIGION CONNECTED. 

promote, or one particular science which they propose to cultivate ; 
and therefore we have reason to indulge the hope, that the differ- 
ent sciences will now make more rapid advances to perfection 
than in former times. Still, however, much remains to be accom- 
plished in regard to the establishment of literary and rational 
associations. The discoveries hitherto made in the various 
departments of human knowledge are entirely unknown to by far 
the greatest proportion even of the civilized part of mankind. 
Institutions, therefore, still require to be formed, on an extensive 
scale, for communicating to the great mass of society at least the 
results of those researches which have hitherto been made, for 
eradicating those erroneous notions which so generally prevail, 
and for directing their attention to moral and intellectual pursuits. 
And should such societies be formed, we might indulge the hope 
that, ere long, they would be enabled to co-operate with those 
respectable societies which now exist, in making researches into 
those regions of science which are yet unexplored, and of pro- 
moting the moral improvement of all classes of the community. 
They would likewise have a tendency to advance the interests of 
genuine religion. For, true science and the doctrines of revela- 
tion, so far from being at variance, perfectly harmonize, and 
reflect a mutual lustre upon each other. Of course, the more 
general information persons require in relation to the system of 
nature and the economy of the material world, the more will they 
be qualified for studying the Scriptures in a rational manner; the 
light of sound philosophy will have a tendency to guard them 
from scepticism on the one hand, and from superstition and enthu- 
siasm on the other, and to prevent them from imbibing those fool- 
ish and erroneous interpretations of Scripture, which have tended 
to bring discredit on the oracles of Heaven. If, therefore, the 
moral improvement and the intellectual illumination of mankind 
be an object at all desirable, it is to be hoped the intelligent public 
will duly appreciate its importance, and encourage every scheme 
which has a tendency to raise our species to that dignity which 
they ought to hold in the scale of existence, as rational and im- 
mortal beings. 

Such is an abridged view of the communications on this sub- 
ject, which were offered to the public above twenty years ago, 
long before any such society actually existed. Such institutions 
have now been established in most of the large towns of the Bri- 
tish empire, and in various parts of the United States of America ; 
but none of them with which I am acquainted comprehend in their 
plan all the objects above stated. In their present state they 
appear defective in the following respects : — 1. In these institutions 



DEFECTS IN MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. S77 

being regarded as chiefly adapted to the instruction of artists and 
mechanics, for rendering them more intelligent and expert in their 
respective trades and professions ; and hence the instructions 
communicated have been ahnost exclusively confined to mathe- 
matics and mechanical philosophy. It is highly requisite that 
mechanics should be instructed in the physical and mathematical 
sciences connected with their professions ; but this, instead of 
being considered as an ultimate object, should be viewed as only 
one of the subordinate objects of such institutions. Their grand 
and ultimate objects ought to be, to induce a taste, among the 
great mass of society, for moral and intellectual improvement — 
and to diffuse, throughout all ranks, useful knowledge of every 
description, in order to raise the human mind from that state of 
degradation in which it has been so Ions; immersed, and to direct 
its contemplations to objects worthy of the dignity of rational and 
immortal natures. 

In order to accomplish such objects, it is essentially requisite 
that knowledge be presented to the understanding in its most in- 
teresting and alluring forms. In the first instance, all abstract 
disquisitions, and abstruse mathematical investigations, should be 
studiously avoided, or postponed to a future period ; and those 
scenes and objects presented to view, which have a tendency to 
allure the imagination, to excite inquiry, and to produce rational 
delight. Such are the subjects of Natural History, which, con^ 
sidered in its most comprehensive sense, has for its object, to ar- 
range and describe all the known facts in the material universe. 
Facts constitute the foundation of all the sciences-^they are most 
easily acquired when properly described — "their acquisition re- 
quires the least exertion of intellect— and, when presented to the 
view in sufficient number and variety, they will always produce 
pleasurable emotions, and a thirst for intellectual enjoyment. 
And, therefore, in the natural order of instruction, they ought to 
constitute the first portions of knowledge to be presented to the 
untutored mind in all colleges, academies, and mechanics' insti- 
tutions. After the student has acquired a knowledge of such 
facts, the elements of the mathematical sciences might next occu- 
py his attention, for enabling him to enter on the discussions of 
natural philosophy, astronomy, and the investigation of the causes 
of the phenomena of nature. A profound knowledge of the ab- 
struse parts of mathematics, however, is not absolutely necessary 
for the acquisition of the more useful branches of general know- 
ledge. An acquaintance with the demonstrations of the first book 
of Euclid, and of a few propositions in some of the other books— 
the elements of plane trigonometry and conic sections, along with 

32* 



378 IMPROVEMENT OP MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. 

practical geometry — is almost all that is requisite for understand- 
ing the more interesting departments of science, and may be ac- 
quired in a very short time, by a moderate application of the 
mental powers. The order I have now stated has, however, in 
most instances, been inverted. The abstractions of mathematical 
science have been presented to young and untutored minds before 
they had any conceptions of their utility, or the investigations to 
which they are applied, and before they had acquired a relish for 
substantial knowledge ; and the consequence has been, that many 
have abandoned the pursuit of knowledge, on account of the dry 
and uninteresting form in which it was presented to the mind. In 
conformity with this practice, the directors of some mechanics' 
institutions have selected lecturers chiefly on the ground of their 
being expert mathematicians without any knowledge of their 
accomplishments as popular teachers of natural science ; and the 
consequence has been, that both the superintendents and the mem- 
bers of the institution have been disappointed, and the society has 
fallen into disrepute. For, a profound mathematician is not gene- 
rally the person best calculated to convey a knowledge of the 
facts of natural history and philosophy, in the most simple and 
alluring manner, to the untutored mind. 

2. Another defect in these institutions, as presently conducted, 
is; that they are not rendered so subservient as they might be to 
the moral improvement of society. Knowledge of every descrip- 
tion ought to be rendered subservient to the illustration of Divine 
truth — of the attributes and moral government of the Almighty 
— of the facts and evidences of revelation — and for counteracting 
evil passions, and promoting the advancement of the human race 
in true morality — ^and thus preparing them for the employments 
of that future and eternal world to which they are destined. Un- 
iess this object be kept in view, the advantages which society will 
derive from such institutions will be comparatively few and unim- 
portant. For the mere acquisition of scientific knowledge will 
not of itself counteract the depravity and moral evils which exist 
in the world, nor raise mankind in the scale of moral excellence, 
unless it be blended with that celestial light which proceeds direct- 
ly from the great Source of intelligence. Discussions on some 
of the leading subjects to which I allude can easily be conducted, 
without in the least interfering with sectarian views of religion ; 
and 1 cannot account for the almost universal practice of setting 
aside such topics in philosophical discussions, without being in- 
clined to suppose that there is a certain degree of antipathy enter- 
tained towards such subjects, notwithstanding their important 



IMPROVEMENT OP MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. 379 

bearings on the present comfort and the future happiness of 
mankind. 

I shall only add farther, that, besides the communication of 
knowledge by public lectures in mechanics' institutions, the mem- 
bers of such societies might have occasional meetings for mutual 
instruction. At such meetings, a portion of some standard, scien- 
tific, or other work, might be read, and a conversation entered 
into respecting the subject it discusses. Every member should 
have an opportunity of proposing questions in reference to that 
subject, and of stating any objections or difficulties that may occur 
to his mind — not for the purpose of cavilling or of formal disputa- 
tion, but to increase his information, and to draw forth the re- 
marks of his associates. In this way the leading branches of 
any particular system of science might be explained and elucidat- 
ed in the course of a session. 



( 380 ) 



PART II. 

MISCELLANEOUS HINTS IN REFERENCE TO THE DIFFUSION 
OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY. 

On the following subjects I originally intended to enter into 
some specific details and particular illustrations. But as this 
volume has already swelled to a considerable size, I can offer, in 
the meantime, only a few general hints. — If we would carry for- 
ward the social state of man to that "consummation" which is 
so " devoutly to be wished," we would require, in the first place, 
to enter into every department of society, and detect the absurdi- 
ties, abuses, and immoral principles connected with it, and expose 
them to view in all their naked deformities and unchristian ten- 
dencies. For there is scarcely a department of the social state, 
in Europe or Asia, v/hether civil, political, or ecclesiastical, but 
IS based on selfishness, ambition, avarice, tyranny, or other anti- 
social and malignant principles. In the next place, it would be 
necessary, not only to investigate the remedies to be applied to 
such evils, but to introduce practices which have never yet pre- 
vailed, and to lay the foundation of institutions which have never 
yet been established. For, if ever we expect to behold a period 
when knowledge shall be universal, when " Righteousness shall 
run down our streets as a river," and when " Holiness to the 
Lord" shall be inscribed on all the employments of human life — 
our existing institutions require to be new modelled, and many 
of them altogether overturned, and a new foundation laid for the 
advancement of society, and the future progress of the human 
mind. Notwithstanding the vague and violent declamations of 
certain politicans and divines about the necessity of " preserving 
unimpaired our national institutions," it is evident that some of 
them are rotten to the very core, and stand as obstructions to the 
rights of mankind — to the progress of knowledge, and to moral 
improvement. There is a continual outcry among certain classes 
against every thing which has the appearance of '■Hnn ovation y"* 
and which implies a want of confidence in " the wisdom of our 
ancestors ;" as if laws and institutions, framed in an age com- 
paratively barbarous and unenlightened, were so absolutely per- 
fect that they required no farther correction or improvement. 
Without innovation there can be no thorough reformation. Many 
existing institutions, laws, and usages, have been tried for cen- 



IMPROVEMENTS IN PREACHING. 381 

turies, and have been found of little avail to the renovation of the 
world ; and he who insists that they shall be still supported in 
every iota, as they have hitherto been, virtually declares, that 
the moral tvorld ought to stand still, and that no such period as 
the Scripture-Millennium will ever arrive to bless mankind. There 
is an utter inconsistency in maintaining that every practice and 
institution should continue in its present state, and at the same 
time admitting that the world is to be regenerated, and that " the 
knowledge of Jehovah shall cover the earth." The one position 
appears incompatible with the other, and he who tenaciously ad- 
heres to the former must give up the latter ; and hence we have 
sometimes found, that those who are strenuous supporters of 
" things as they are," do not hesitate to affirm, that " the world 
will never be much better than it has hitherto been, and that 
wars, and ignorance, and misery, will continue to the end of 
time." But such a sentiment, as we have already shown, is in- 
consistent with the plainest declarations of the oracles of Heaven, 
and tends to throw a dismal gloom over all the future prospects 
of society ; and I trust there is scarcely one enlightened Christian 
that would dare to vindicate an opinion so inconsistent with the 
future improvement of our species, and with the benevolent pur- 
poses and arrangements of the Governor of the world. — But to 
enter particularly into the subjects to which I allude would re- 
quire a separate volume of no inconsiderable size. I shall there- 
fore, in the meantime, offer only a few very general hints, leaving 
every one to prosecute the subject more particularly by his own 
reflections. 

I. On Improvements in regard to Preaching. 

In the few remarks which I intend to make on this topic, it is 
taken for granted that the fundamental facts and doctrines of 
Christianity are to be frequently illustrated, and always recog- 
nised in every discussion that has a reference to religion. But it 
is preposterous to dwell almost perpetually, as some preachers 
do, on what may be termed the alphabet, the rudiments, or first 
principles of Christianity, as if Christians were always to remain 
" babes in Christ." " Leaving the first principles of the doctrine 
of Christ," but neither forgetting them, nor dwelling exclusively 
upon them, they ought " to go on to perfection," carrying for- 
ward and tracing these principles through all their important 
bearings and consequences in the Christian life, and expanding 
their minds with all the views of the Divine operations which the 
aids of Revelation, art and science, can furnish. This progress 
towards perfection, however, can never be attained, if Christians 



382 TOPICS OF rREACIIING. 

are always employed in " laying again the foundation," and 
never attempting to rear the superstructure ; and if Christian in- 
structors are always exercised in attempting to prove and explain 
a few of the fundamental articles of the Christian system, and 
neglect to carry forward their readers and hearers through all the 
different departments of Christian action and contemplation. 
What should we think of the teacher of geometry who, after ex- 
plaining the terms, axioms, and first principles of the science, 
stopped short, and left the student either to prosecute his path 
through the leading propositions and higher branches, or not, as 
he deemed proper? What should we think of the philosopher 
who spent his time merely in explaining the rules of philoso- 
phizing, and the general laws of motion, without ever applying 
them to the investigation and explanation of the phenomena of 
the visible world ; and who is always defining first principles, 
without tracing them to their consequences, or pointing out the 
manner of their application? We could expect but poor geome- 
ters and philosophers from such meagre instructions. And can 
we expect that the Christian instructor who seldom goes bc3'^ond 
the axioms of Christianity shall render his hearers enlightened and 
practical Christians, and bold heroes in promoting the cause of 
reformation and religion ? If~such a plan of instruction be wise, 
then the apostles and prophets were fools in directing us so par- 
ticularly in all the practical bearings of religion, and taking^such 
expansive views of the works and the moral Government of God. 
But, waiving such general observations, I proceed to offer two or 
three particular remarks. 

The preacher should take in a more comprehensive range of 
subjects, in his instructions, than that to which he is usually con- 
fined. The Scriptures contain references to a greater variety of 
jobjects than any other book — all of which must be considered as 
legitimate subjects for discussion in the pulpit. The works of 
creation, as displaying the Power, Wisdom, Benevolence, Gran- 
deur, and superintending care of the Creator — the events recorded 
in sacred and civil history, as manifestations of the character and 
principles of his moral government — the history of nations and 
the revolutions to which they have been subjected, as illustrative 
of his faithfulness and retributive justice, and of the fulfilment 
of ancient predictions — the harmony which subsists between the 
system of nature and the system of Revelation, and the mutual 
light they reflect upon each other — the depravity of man, and 
the proofs and illustrations of it which arc to be found in the con- 
stitution and operations of nature, and in the wars, and devasta- 
tions, and malignant principles which have prevailed in the world 



TOPICS OF PREACHING. 383 

— the truth of Revelation, as displayed in its powerful and benefi- 
cent effects in the case of nations, families, and individuals, and in 
its transforming influence on the state of society and on the phy- 
sical aspect of the world — the various active means by which so- 
ciety may be improved and regenerated, and the blessings of the 
gospel diffused among all nations — the multifarious ways in which 
benevolence and general philanthropy may be made to operate in 
diffusing knowledge, counteracting misery, alleviating distress, and 
promoting happiness among all ranks — the rational grounds of 
those moral laws which God has promulgated in his word, which 
form the basis, of the order and happiness of the moral universe, 
— these, and other topics connected with them, in conjunction with 
the leading doctrines of Christianity, and the views which the 
Scriptures unfold of the glories of the Millennial era, the resurrec- 
tion of the dead, the new heavens and earth, and the employments 
and felicities of the future world — should be exhibited in a lumin- 
ous and energetic manner, and illustrated with all the facts and 
scenes which the physical and moral world can supply. In par- 
ticular, the duties of practical Christianity, the government of 
the temper, the dispositions and principles which should be dis- 
played amidst the scenes and departments of human life, the duties 
incumbent on masters, servants, parents, children, teachers, scho- 
lars, merchants, judges, authors, publishers, neighbours, and other 
relations in society, should be specifically explained and illus- 
trated. Graphical descriptions might be given of the scenes of 
human life and the practices which abound in society, delineating 
the selfish and malignant principles which pervade them, drawing 
them forth from their hiding place, and portraying them before 
every eye, in all their contrariety to the principles of the gospel, 
and in all their repulsive features and abominations — at the same 
time showing how the spirit of Christianity ought to operate in 
every scene and department in the commercial, political, and re- 
ligious world, and what delightful and harmonious effects would 
be produced, were the principles of our holy religion to be uni- 
versally recognised in all the transa.ctions of mankind. 

Had we a preacher endowed with the graphical powers of a 
Sir Walter Scott, with a mind imbued with Christian principles, 
and ardently desirous to consecrate his^ faculties to the advance- 
ment of practical Christianity — he might, by his lively and pic- 
turesque descriptions of the scenes of sin and holiness, and their 
respective effects on the moral world, excite attention to such sub- 
jects almost to as high a pitch as that celebrated novelist did to 
his tales of warlike encounters, and of knights and ferocious 
chieftains whose names ought now to descend into oblivion. Such 



384 PRACTICAL PREACHING. 

were some of the inspired preachers, whose orations are recorded 
in the book of God. Such was the prophet Isaiah when he pro- 
claimed to the tribes of Israel the counsels of the Most High. 
Let us conceive him standing in an elevated position in the court 
of the temple, at one of the solemn feasts, surrounded with thou- 
sands of worshippers, — describing the majesty of Him " who 
measureth the waters in the hollow of his hand, meteth out hea- 
ven with the span, and weigheth the mountains in scales and the 
hills in a balance"— contrasting the grandeur of Jehovah with the 
vanities of the heathen and the pitiful images of the idolater — 
portraying the destruction of Babylon, and its hideous and per- 
petual desolations — depicting the riches and splendour of Tyre, 
and the doom which awaited her proud inhabitants — fortelling the 
downfall of Egypt and the utter confusion and despair which 
would seize upon all ranks — denouncing the wickedness and 
abominations of the people of Judah — displaying the Messiah, in 
his character, humiliation, sufferings, and triumphs, and unfold- 
ing the future glories of his triumphant reign, when " the Gen- 
tiles shall come to his light, and kings to the brightness of his 
rising," and " all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of 
God," — and we have a representation of a sacred orator, ani- 
mated with the most sublime conceptions, and delivering his 
message in language calculated to arrest the attention of every 
hearer.* — The apostle Paul at Athens is another example.f 
Standing on the summit of Mars hill, under the open canopy of 
heaven, with the lofty Acropolis towering behind him, with islands, 
seas, mountains, and the peerless city of Athens, with the Porch, 
the Lyceum, and the Grove, stietched out before him, and point- 
ing to the splendid temples of idolatry, and to the altar erected 
" To THE UNKNOWN God" — he describes that incomprehensible 
Being " who dwelleth not in temples made with hands," who Is 
the Source of life to all beings, and who has " appointed the 
tiines of their existence and the boundaries of their habitations" — 
demonstrates the absurdity of idol-worship — proclaims the com- 
mencement of a new era, and the command of the Most High to 
"all men every where to repent" — and declares the cv'^rtainty of 
a future state, a resurrection from the dead, and a day when 
" God will iudge the world in rii^rhteousness" by the man Christ 
Jesus. There is no doubt that in this discourse, of which we 
have only a brief summary, the apostle would select all the sur- 
rounding objects, the facts of history, and the scenes of nature, 



* See Isaiah, chapters xl. xliv. xiii. xxiii. xix. liii. Ix. Ixv , &c. 
+ Acts, xvii. 



DOMESTIC EDUCATION. 385 

which could be made to bear on the point of discussion, in order 
to illustrate the sublime topics of his address, and to produce an 
indelible impression on the minds of his audience. 

We have another representation of what a Christian preacher 
ought to be, in the example of Messiah, the great " Teacher sent 
from God." Seated on a mountain, with the vault of heaven 
above him for his sounding board, he expatiates on the happiness 
of the humble, the meek, the merciful, the pure in heart, the 
peace-makers, and they who are persecuted for the sake of 
righteousness, "in opposition to all the false maxims which had pre- 
vailed in the world ; and, in a long discourse, exposes the hypo- 
critical and corrupt principles of the age, and enforces the true laws 
of moral action on every class of his hearers — a discourse which, 
if it were not recorded in the Bible as having been delivered by 
the highest authority, would be considered by some as a specimen 
of legal preaching. On other occasions he collected multitudes 
on the sea shore, and addressed them from a ship, illustrating his 
heavenly doctrines from the sowing of seed, the tares among the 
wheat, the gradual progress of vegetation, the mustard tree, the 
pearl of great price, and the net which gathered fishes of every 
kind. The objects both of the living and inanimate creation were 
presented to his hearers as conveying sentiments of instruction 
and piety. He inculcated upon them confidence in the care of 
Providence, from the birds of the air and the flowers of the field. 
*' Behold the fowls of the air," which are now flying around you, 
*' they sow not, neither do they reap nor gather into barns, yet 
your heavenly father feedeth them ;" " Consider the lilies of the 
field" growing on yonder meadow, " they toil not, neither do they 
spin, yet Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like one of 
these." Such was the subjects illustrated, and the npLode of in- 
struction adopted by those who were commissioned from heaven 
to make known the will of God to man. How very different, 
both in matter and manner, were those simple and sublime in- 
structions, from some of the meagre metaphysical discourses 
wliich are frequently read in, our churches, in a dull monotonous 
tone, and .. liich present scarcely one well-defined or animating idea 
to the majority of the hearers ! And let the reason of every man, 
who acknowledges the Scriptures as a Divine Revelation, deter- 
mine which of these modes of preaching is to be preferred — 
whether we ought to imitate the example of inspired teachers, or 
that of fallible and erring men ! 

Again, the subject of the education of children, and the pro- 
per means to be employed for training them in knowledge and 
christian morality, vshould occasionally form the subject of preach- 

33 



386 SENSIBLE REPRESENTATIONS. 

ing. Lectures might be delivered on this subject on Sabbath 
evenings, or on week days, and the general principles and rules 
laid down, particularly illustrating hy examples taken from the 
existing scenes and practices of society. With regard to private 
or family education, I know no book that would serve for a bet- 
ter model, as to the manner in which such instructions should be 
conveyed, than Mr. Abbot's " Mother at home," with all its ap- 
propriate facts and examples. Even the mere reading of such a 
book to a public audience, with occasional pauses, remarks, and 
familiar illustrations, might produce a more powerful practical 
effect than many elaborate sermons, whose object is merely to 
prove a doctrine which a single text of Scripture is sufficient to 
establish. This is a subject of paramount importance, and which 
has been too much overlooked in the business of christian instruc- 
tion. Most of the evils which abound in society may be traced 
to the want of proper tuition in early life, under the domestic 
roof, and to the ignorance of parents and servants, as to the ra- 
tional and moral principles on which instruction and family go- 
vernment ought to proceed. Discourses should likewise be oc- 
casionally preached on the duty of Christians devoting a con- 
siderable portion of their wealth for the promotion of education 
and universal improvement in society. This is a duty which, in 
the present age, is scarcely understood or appreciated ; and yet, 
upon the universal attention that is paid to it will depend the fu- 
ture progress of knowlege and religion, and all the bright scenes 
to which we look forward in the days of the Millennium. But 
it is needless to enlarge on this topic after what has been stated 
in the preceding pages. (See p. 348, &c.) 

2. The effect of preaching might be increased, hy illustrating 
the facts and reasonings connected with religion — in so far as 
they are susceptible of it — ivith sensible representations. In de- 
scribing, for example, the Jewish tabernacle and its utensils, 
models or pictorial representations of such objects, on a large 
scale, might be exhibited. I have known persons who were con- 
sidered as intelligent Christians and mighty in the Scriptures, who 
appeared to have no accurate conceptions of such objects, and 
who, when the relative positions of the altar of burnt offering, 
the sanctuary, and the Holy of Holies, were represented on paper, 
along with the furniture and vessels in the respective apartments, 
acquired ideas on the subject which they never before entertained. 
When we consider the frequent allusions made to such objects in 
the writings of the prophets, in the Evangelical history, and par- 
ticularly in the Epistle to the Hebrews, it cannot be a matter of 
mere indifference, that Christians should be altogether destitute 



SENSIBLE REPRESENTATIONS. 387 

of clear conceptions of the scenes and objects connected with the 
tabernacle in the wilderness, or the temple at Jerusalem ; and 
there are comparatively few individuals who are able to form a 
distinct picture in their minds of such objects merely from reading 
the descriptions in the books of Moses. I have heard a preacher 
attempt to convey an idea to his hearers of the Ark of the Cove- 
nant, by telling them it was about the size of a tent-hed, and 
somewhat similar to it in form. But it would certainly have con- 
veyed a more precise and accurate idea, had a large drawing or 
engraving of it been exhibited to their view, and the different 
parts of it pointed out and explained. Maps, on a large scale, of 
Palestine, Asia Minor, and the countries around Judea, where the 
Apostles travelled to propagate the gospel, might likewise be ex- 
hibited, when the preacher is lecturing on the journeyings of Is- 
rael from Egypt, on the Evangelists, or the Acts of the Apostles, 
for the purpose of elucidating the narrations of the sacred his- 
torians, and showing the relations of the several towns and coun- 
tries to which a reference or allusion is made ; for the interest ex- 
cited by these narratives, and some of the instructions to be derived 
from them, partly depend on our knowledge of the geographical 
positions and relations of the persons and places to which the 
history refers. Similar exhibitions might likewise occasionally 
be made of various objects alluded to in Scripture, connected with 
the agriculture, antiquities, arts and sciences of the Eastern na- 
tions, — on a knowledge of which a clear perception of the meaning 
and references of many passages in the prophetical and historical 
writings in a great measure depends. The only point to be settled 
is, whether it be proper, in any case, to introduce such subjects 
into the pulpit. If this point be admitted, then the question is, 
whether we ought to convey a clear and distinct idea of the object, 
or an obscure and distorted conception, or no idea at all. For 
mere verbal descriptions can convey no distinct conceptions of the 
objects to which I allude. 

Some worthy Christians, I am aware, would be apt to imagine, 
that such illustrations are altogether foreign to the business of 
religion, and that they would draw aside the mind from God and 
spiritual objects. But, I would ask, what do we know of relio-jon 
except the notions we have acquired through the medium of the 
senses ? What ideas have we of God but what we have derived 
from the history of his dispensations recorded in his word, and the 
contemplation of his visible works ? Every fact contained in the 
Bible embodies in it a description and exhibition of sensible objects, 
without the intervention of which we could have no ideas of reli- 
gion at all ; and the material creation around us is an adumbration 



388 EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF DIVINITY. 

or sensible exhibition of the attributes of the invisible Divinity. — 
His Omnipresence and agency is manifested in every object we 
behold. Every plant and flower, as it springs upward to matu- 
rity, indicates the presence and incessant operation of Him who 
formed it by his wisdom. Every ray of light descending from 
the solar orb, is an indication of the presence and glory of Him 
who is represented as dwelling "in light unapproachable." Were 
we, in reality, " spiritually minded," were our thoughts and afl^ec- 
tions properly directed, we would see God in every object and in 
every event — in the instruments of agriculture, by which the earth 
is cultivated — in the microscope, which discloses to our view the 
invisible worlds of life — in the Jewish tabernacle, with all its fur- 
niture and utensils — in the history of nations, and the revolutions 
through which they have passed — in the whirlwind, the tempest, 
and the refreshing breeze — in the verdure of summer, the storms 
of winter, the fruits of harvest, and in all the beauties and sublimi- 
ties of earth and heaven ; — and therefore, whatever artificial rep- 
resentations can assist our minds in forming distinct conceptions 
of such objects must have a tendency to convey instruction, and 
to inspire us with sentiments of piety and devotion. 

3. In order to diversity the topics of preaching, and to render 
it more interesting and instructive, the edvcation of candidates for 
jthe ministry ought to embrace a more appropriate and extensive 
range of subjects than that to which it has been usually confined. 
It is somewhat strange, that, in reference to preaching, the simile 
has been introduced into our language, " as dull as a sermon.'*'' 
There is no class of orators that has such a multiplicity of sublime 
and interesting objects and motives at his command, and so exten- 
sive a range of illustration, as the Christian preacher. He has 
the boundless field of the universe, in all its diversified relations, 
in which to expatiate — all the scenes of Providence which have 
been displayed in every age since time began — eternity, past gnd 
to come, with all its awful and glorious realities — the ruin and 
the recovery of a fallen world — the virtues, miracles, death, resur- 
rection, ascension, and glory, of Him who is " the image of the 
invisible God" — the operations of the Divine government in refer- 
ence both to man and to angels — the powers and agencies of 
superior intelligences — the perfections of the Deity, and the gran- 
deur of his empire — the moral principles of the Christian system, 
and the virtues which, if practised, would reunite all the tribes 
and families of mankind — the hopes and fears of human beings 
both in regard to this world and to the life to come — the felicity 
and glory of the millennial church — the scenes of the conflagra- 
tion, the general resurrection, the last judgment, and the happi- 



EDUCATION FOR THE 3IINISTRY. 389 

ness and employments of men and angels throughout an endless 
duration, — these, with all the endlessly diversified objects con- 
nected with them, form so many legitimate topics and sources of 
illustration to every Christian preacher. And yet, a sermon is 
generally characterized as a dull and somniferous composition. 
If this characteristic be true, the fault lies, not in the subject, and 
the narrow range of topics, but in the preacher himself. 

It is not a little unaccountable, that the series of instruction 
through which students for the ministry usually pass, is every 
thing but adapted to produce intelligent and eloquent preachers of 
the gospel.. Almost the one-half of the time devoted to what are 
called philosophical studies is employed in the study of Latin and 
mere classical literature, while they are never introduced to the 
knowledge of those more interesting and luminous subjects which 
have a far more direct bearing on theology and the objects of 
the Christian ministry. Even the subjects of natural history, 
natural theology, geography, popular philosophy, and pulpit ora- 
tory, are seldom discussed or illustrated in the seminaries where 
they are taught; and hence may be traced the limited views 
which are entertained respecting the range of illustration on sub- 
jects of divinity, and the little effort which has been made to excel 
in sacred eloquence. A preacher, in so far as is practicable, 
should be a man of almost wmi^ersai knowledge. Without exten-^ 
sive information on all the subjects to which I have alluded, he 
cannot be supposed to enter with spirit and energy on the illustra- 
tion of such topics, or to exhibit those graphical descriptions, and 
delineations of physical and moral scenery to which I lately 
adverted. The time employed in the study of Latin, and classical 
learning, might be sufficient for laying the foundation of knowledge 
in all those useful departments of science and religion, which, when 
thoroughly studied in after life, would "make the man of God 
complete, and thoroughly fitted for every good work." It is little 
short of criminality to waste so much time in such studies, while 
subjects of infinitely greater importance are either overlooked, or 
altogether neglected." And therefore, if we would render the 
Christian ministry fully efficient for all the great purposes it is 
intended to accomplish, we must introduce new arrangements into 
the plan of our academical instruction. In connection with Bibli- 
cal criticism, and the study of Greek and Hebrew, in so for as 
necessary for reading the Scriptures in the original languages, all 
the branches of natural history, geology, geography, experi- 
mental philosophy, chemistry, physiology, natural theology; an- 
cient and modern history, sacred, ecclesiastical, and civil ; the 
progress of the arts ; the physical, moral, and political state of 

33* 



390 SUBJECTS FOR PUBLIC WORSHIP. 

the nations — in short, all the facts which can be ascertained in 
reference to the operations of the Creator in the physical and 
moral universe, oug"ht to be studied, in so far as is practicable; 
and no one should be sent forth as a preacher (unless in extraor- 
dinary cases.)* Such knowledge would furnish inexhaustible 
sources o[ illustration on divine subjects, which would both arrest 
the attention, and increase the general knowledge of the hearers 
of the gospel. I have always considered it as a characteristic of 
a good sermon, which the hearers would appreciate, when an 
outline of the leading ideas contained in it could be sketched on 
paper or canvass. We can paint the outlines of our Saviour's 
instructions, Paul's sermon at Athens, Moses' farewell address to 
the Israelites, the speech of the Almighty addressed to Job, and 
most of the orations of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, and the other 
prophets. But this can never be done, unless there be interwoven 
with the texture of the discourse tangible illustrations, borrowed 
from the subjects to which I have alluded. I may just add, that 
every candidate for the ministry should pay particular attention 
to the improvement of his voice and manner of delivery, so that 
he may be enabled to express his sentiments with a distinct ar- 
ticulation, and with becoming energy and pathos, suitable to the 
nature and solemnity of his subject, — and not, as is frequently 
the case, like a school-boy reading his lesson with a disgusting 
monotony. Where there is any natural or acquired defect in the 
organs of speech, the individual ought to be considered as unfit 
for the office of a Christian preacher. 

4. Divine worship should be so conducted that praise offered 
to our Creator and Redeemer should be appropriate, and accord- 
ant with the dictates of inspiration. In order to this, all the 
subjects of praise should be taken directly from the sacred 
oracles, and the poetical version into which we throw them 
should embady, as nearly as possible, the very language of the 
inspired writers, and, in every instance, the exact sentiments. 
The Scottish version of the Psalms of David — though containing 
many doggrel rhymes, and susceptible of considerable improve- 
ment — is, perhaps, the most accordant of any with the language 
and sentiments of the inspired penman. It is strictly coincident 
with the common version of the Bible, and where that version is 
incorrect, the poetical version is likewise deficient in precision 

* There appears no necessity for courses of moral philosophy in Chris- 
tian colleges and academies ; as every one who takes Revelation for his 
guide, finds the purest and most comprehensive system of moral science 
explained and illustrated by the sacred writers. 



MODE OP CONDUCTING DIVINE WORSHIP. 891 

and accuracy. But it does not appear to be incumbent upon us 
either to use the whole of the book of Psalrns in our praises, or 
to confine ourselves to that selection of sacred poetry. The books 
of Moses, the book of Job, the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
Daniel, and Habakkuk, the Evangelists, the Epistles, and par- 
ticularly the book of Revelation, can supply many appropriate 
passages to direct our meditations in the exercise of praise. But 
I would lay it down as a principle, that, in translating them into 
English verse, we should strictly adhere to the sentiments of the 
inspired writers, without interweaving our own paraphrases and 
comments. I hold it as an axiom, that the inspired writers are 
the best judges of what is proper to be addressed to God in 
praise, and that our praises ought to contain nothing but the pure 
sentiments of inspiration. In opposition to this maxim, we find 
Independents, Methodists, Baptists, and others, using collections 
of what are termed hymns in public worship, and almost discard- 
ing the book of Psalms, as if it were too antiquated a composition 
for directing Christian worship. Many of the compositions I allude 
to are vague, enthusiastic, too familiar in their language when ad- 
dressing the Creator and Redeemer — in many instances exhibit 
confused and distorted images of divine things, particularly when 
descanting on the joys of heaven ; and their style and manner as well 
as some of their sentiments, altogether different from those of the 
prophets and apostles. To prefer such compositions in our ad- 
dresses to God, to those of inspired men, is little else than to 
*' forsake the fountain of living waters, and to hew out broken 
cisterns that can hold no water." I know not a more glaring 
piece of contradiction than in the pertinacious use of such hymns 
by the denominations alluded to, since they acknowledge no creed 
but the Scriptures ; and when, in fact, there is a creed — in some 
instances not very consistent— embodied in the hymn book. The 
only question to be determined is. Are inspired writers the best 
judges of what we ought to address to God, and ought we to be 
directed by them in our devotions, or by the flimsy and erring 
compositions of fallible man? Private families and individuals 
may be left to their own feelings and discretion in this respect, 
but it is scarcely fair to impose such compositions on a public 
assembly. 

There is another circumstance, in the exercise of praise, which 
deserves censure, and that is, foolish and unmeaning repetitions. 
Some tunes used in public worship require the last line of the 
verse or stanza to be two or three times repeated, whether it con- 
tains a complete sense or not ; other tunes require half a line to 
be repeated three times, although the pause should happen to be 



392 UNION OF THE CHRISTIAN CHUliCH. 

in the middle of a word ; so that a worshipping assembly, chiming 
in with such an absurd practice, appears " like children babbling 
nonsense in their sports." Such a practice is highly indecorous ; 
it is little short of mocking the Great Object of worship ; and 
were an infidel entering an assembly when thus engaged, he 
might have some show of reason for declaiming on the absurdi- 
ties of Christian worship. Those who abet such a practice would 
do well to consider the import of the Apostle's resolution, " 1 will 
sing with the spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also." 

II. The Union of the Christian Church would have a tendency 
to 'promote universal improvement. 

The jealousies and mutual recriminations of contending sec- 
taries constitute one of the many causes which have prevented 
the advancement of society. They have prevented the harmonious 
co-operation of all ranks and parties in establishing seminaries 
for the instruction of the young, and for promoting the knowledge 
of religion in our own country and in other lands ; so that society, 
instead of moving forward as one great harmonious body in the 
path of improvement, has been shattered into a hundred different 
parties, each moving in its own direction, sometimes crossing the 
path of the others, sometimes advancing in an opposite direction, 
and sometimes clashing and engaging in mutual warfare. This 
is a state of Christian society which is much to be deplored, and 
which requires the most serious and solemn consideration of all 
denominations of the religious world, as to the means which ought 
to be employed, and the concessions which ought to be made, in 
order to produce a cordial union of all who appear to be imbued 
with the spirit of Christianity. Were this desirable object nearly 
effected, numerous obstructions to the general difflision of know- 
ledge would be removed, and a new impulse given to the cause 
of universal improvement. A broad and solid foundation might 
be laid for the universal instruction of all ranks in the leading 
truths of religion, and in every department of useful science, 
without interruption from those sectarian interests and contentions 
which have hitherto obstructed the rearing of the temple of know- 
ledge and of Christianity. Liberality of views, and a spirit for 
introducing improvements into the social state, would be more 
extensively cherished. National reformation would be carried 
forward with more vigour and effect. Political parties in the 
vState — which are frequently based on sectarian interests and 
opinions — would be gradually undermined, and all who are " right- 
hearted men" disposed to co-operate in every measure that has a 
tendency to promote the general good. The influence of such a 
state of society would be powerful in procuring the enactment of 



DISTORTIONS OF SACRED HISTORY. 893 

laws congenial to the spirit of philanthropy, and the dictates of 
revelation. Missionary enterprises to heathen countries would 
be carried forward on a much more extensive scale, and with far 
greater energy and effect, than can now be produced by the sepa- 
rate and insulated operations of sectarian missions. Unity of plan 
and operation would be introduced into all such expeditions, and 
a saving in the pecuniary means by which they are carried for- 
ward. Money, for all the purposes now stated, would be collect- 
ed with less trouble and to a much greater amount ; perhaps not 
only double or treble the amount now furnished, but even tenfold 
such sums might be collected, were the spirit of Christian union, 
and the liberal views which would iaccompany it, to pervade the 
whole range of the religious world. 

III. The knowledge of the Scriptures might he promoted hy 
illustrating various po?'tions of them with appropriate engravings. 

We have, indeed, Bibles and Commentaries of all sizes, from 
a 24mo to a folio, hawked through the country, "embellished" 
with engravings of different kinds, some of them not a little ex- 
pensive. But these embellishments are, for the most part, only fit 
for the amusement of children, and, instead of elucidating the 
facts recorded in Sacred history, only tend to distort them. They 
consist almost wholly of pictures taken from fancy, in which the 
manners, costume, architecture, and rural scenery of the Eastern 
nations, are grossly misrepresented. Among these, we find views, 
connected with Jerusalem, and other cities in Judea, in which the 
houses are represented with sloping roofs and large arched win- 
dows in the modern style, and the streets crowded with horses, 
and horsemen, richly caparisoned, like knights-errant or modern 
dragoons, and holding halberts in their hands. The inhabitants 
of these countries are represented as wearing neither shoes, stock- 
ings, nor sandals, but quite bare from the soles of the feet to 
the knees. In a picture of the baptism of Christ, he is represent- 
ed as standing quite naked beside a small rivulet, while John the 
Baptist is standing on the other side of it, holding a long cross in 
the one hand, and pouring water from a basin on the head of 
Christ with the other. In a picture of the Temptation, Christ is 
represented as sitting in something like an elbow-chair, with bare 
feet, a long robe like a surplice, and a glory round his head, 
while Satan appears addressing him in the attire of a modern fe- 
male, standing upon cloven feet, and having wings attached to 
his shoulders. Such representations, which may be considered 
as specimens of most of our Scripture prints, instead of convey- 
ing ideas of the facts they are intended to represent, tend only to 
degrade and caricature them. Nothing can be more foolish and 



394 SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS. 

preposterous than most of the pictures representing the scenes of 
Scripture history, particularly in reference to the anachronisms 
they display. Burgoyne, in his Travels, notices a painting in Spain, 
where Abraham is preparing to shoot Isaac with a pistol, and an 
angel employed in providing that it shall miss fire ! There is a 
painting, at Windsor, of Antonio Verrio, in which he has intro- 
duced himself, Sir Godfrey Kneller, and Captain May, surveyor 
of the works, as spectators of Christ's healing the sick. There 
was in the Houghton Hall collection. Velvet Brughels' " Adoration 
of the Magi," in which were a multitude of figures, all finished 
with the greatest Dutch exactness. The Ethiopian king is dressed 
in a surplice, with boots and spvrs, and brings for a present, a 
gold model of a modern ship. Poussion's painting of Rebecca 
at the well, has the whole back-ground decorated with Grecian 
architecture. The same artist, in the picture of the Deluge, has 
painted boats, not then invented. Some of the Saxon painters put 
our Saviour, Noah, Abraham, and king Edgar, all in the same 
habit. 

Many useful ideas respecting Scriptural facts may be com- 
municated by means of engravings ; but such representations as 
those to which I allude, should be for ever discarded from our 
Commentaries and family Bibles. Instead of such absurd exhibi- 
tions, delineations of real objects should be introduced, as illustra- 
tive of some of the facts and descriptions of Sacred history. For 
example, the plan of the Jewish tabernacle and temple, the altar 
of incense and of burnt-offering, the ark of the covenant, the tables 
of showbread, the golden candlesticks, the brazen laver, and other 
utensils, as described by the sacred historians — the instruments 
of agriculture and of music, in so far as they are known, the 
manner of grinding corn, the plan and form of the Eastern build- 
ings, the war-chariots and battering-rams of the ancients — views 
of modern Jerusalem, with plans of the relative positions of Mount 
Zion, Mount Calvary, Mount of Olives, the brook Kidron, &;c. — 
views of Bethlehem, Nazareth, Joppa, the ruins of Tyre, Zidon, 
Babylon, and other cities mentioned in Scripture, as illustrative 
of the fulfilment of prophecy, which may be collected from the 
embellishments contained in the works of modern travellers — 
delineations illustrating the manners and customs of the Eastern 
nations — maps of Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, Assyria, Idumea, 
Babylonia, Persia, Greece, the islands of the Mediterranean, and 
the Roman empire, for illustrating the journeyings of Jesus Christ,, 
the travels of the Apostles, the route of the Israelites through the 
wilderness, and the descriptions of the ancient prophets. En- 
gravings might also be given of the more remarkable animals, 



ABRIDGMENT OF LABOUR. 395 

trees, and flowers, to which allusions are frequently made in the 
Sacred writings. Such views and delineations might be given 
at an expense much less than what is generally incurred in en- 
graving the paltry and fictitious representations to which we have 
alludecT; and they would certainly be much more congenial to 
the taste of intelligent readers of the Bible, and much more con- 
ducive to the illustration of the scenes described by the Sacred 
prophets and historians. 

IV. Knowledge and moral improvement might he promoted 
hy ahridging the hours of labour. 

One great objection to the prosecution of knowledge and gene- 
ral improvement is founded on the fact, that the bulk of mankind 
have not sufficient leisure from their daily avocations for such 
purposes. This is partly true in regard to merchants' clerks, 
haberdashers, grocers, apothecaries, and their apprentices and 
shopmen, and those employed in spinning-mills and several other 
manufactories. In these cases, shops are kept open, and persons 
employed from six in the morning till eight, and even till ten or 
eleven o'clock in the evening. But there is no necessity, in order 
to carry on the business of life, that such long hours of labour 
and attendance on shops should be imposed either on masters or 
servants. All the business usually carried on in shops and manu- 
factories could be transacted, without inconvenience to any party, 
between the hours of seven or eight in the morning, and six in 
the evening, if proper arrangements were made for that purpose. 
When once the public is aware that certain shops are shut up at 
a particular hour, every one would endeavour to supply himself 
with the articles he required from such shops before that hour 
arrived ; and though they were to be kept open till twelve at 
midnight, or one in the morning, we know, from experience, 
that certain individuals would postpone their purchases, till these 
hours had nearly arrived. In order to prevent any inconvenience 
to society, by the shops of bakers, grocers, apothecaries, or others, 
being closed at an early hour, an arrangement might be made to 
have one shop of every class kept open to a later hour, in every 
street or district of a town, so that, on any unforeseen emergency, 
articles of provisions, groceries, medicines, &c. might be procured. 
Every shopkeeper of this description would, of course, have his 
turn, in succession, of keeping open his shop during these extra 
hours, and of reaping, in rotation, the additional profits that might 
accrue, so that, in the course of a year or less, all would find 
themselves on an equal footing in regard to the quantity of busi- 
ness transacted, and the advantages gained, by keeping open in 
rotation their shops till later hours. 



396 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 

There is nothing to hinder the immediate adoption of such ar- 
rangements, but that spirit of jealousy which too much prevails 
among persons of the same profession, and which prevents a 
friendly intercourse among them for concerting measures for the 
good of the whole. A few obstinate and selfish characters, in the 
spirit of contradiction, would, doubtless, set themselves in opposi- 
tion to such regulations ; but as their sordid and avaricious views 
would be apparent to every one, they would soon be despised and 
deserted by the respectable portion of the community, and would 
suffer the natural consequences which almost invariably flow from 
selfishness and avarice. There is no man who, in such a case, 
sets himself in opposition to the general good of a community, 
that ought to be regarded as a Christian ; as such conduct is di- 
rectly opposed to the precept which enjoins us "to love our neigh- 
hour as ourselves," and " to look not merely on our own things, 
but also on the things of others." Such an arrangement, while 
it could be injurious to none, would be highly beneficial to all. 
It would afford leisure for public, private, and domestic inter- 
course — for attending philanthropic associations, or lectures on 
any branch of useful knowledge — for improving their minds in 
wisdom and virtue — for instructing their children, and enjoying 
the sweets of domestic intercourse — and for taking an active part 
in all those schemes which tend to promote the best interests of 
society. In particular, it would afford an opportunity to merchants' 
clerks, shopmen, apprentices, and others, of attending societies, 
lectures, schools, or other seminaries of instruction, for improving 
both their intellectual and moral powers — for want of which op- 
portunities many young persons of this description rise up to man- 
hood in comparative ignorance, and easily slide into the paths of 
folly and intemperance. But, before such an arrangement is 
effected, it would be previously requisite that seminaries, such as 
those formerly suggested, be established, for promoting the instruc- 
tion of the classes to which I allude, so that their evening hours 
may not be spent in sloth or licentiousness. In regard to weavers, 
masons, tailors, carpenters, mill-spinners, and common labourers, 
eight hours a day employed in labour, instead of ten or eleven, 
might be suflicient for all the purposes of society. Since the in- 
vention of modern machinery, a much greater quantity of labour 
than formerly can be effected in the same time. It appears to 
me, that the Governor of the world, in permitting such inventions 
for facilitating the process of manufactures, evidently intends 
thereby that the period of human labour should be abridged, in 
order to alTord scope to all classes of society for mental, moral, 
and religious improvement, and in order to prepare the way for 



DIRECTION OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 397 

that period when " the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the 
earth." It ought, therefore, to be considered as a misapplication 
of machinery when it is employed chiefly for the purpose of en- 
riching and aggrandizing a few individuals, while the mechanic 
and labourer are deprived both of the physical and moral advan- 
tages which it was intended to produce. 

V. Knowledge might be promoted hy a proper direction of 
public amusements. 

There can be no impropriety, at certain intervals, of gratifying 
the mass of society with an exhibition of public amusements. 
But such amusements should always be blended, if possible, with 
moral and intellectual instruction — be congenial to the dignity and 
• the high destination of man — and ought never to interfere with 
the purity of Christian morals. We have public amusements of 
various descriptions, such as stage-plays, balls, masquerades, 
horse-racing, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, equestrian feats and 
exhibitions, tricks of legerdemain, rope-dancing, &c. &c. ; but 
most, if not all, of these, have an immoral tendency, and some 
of them are inconsistent with humanity, and degrading to the cha- 
racter of man. Instead of such trifling and demoralizing amuse- 
ments, such exhibitions as the following might be adopted: — 1. 
Air balloons, of a pretty large size, which might be sent up into 
the atmosphere either with or without living beings, and might 
be rendered subservient for investigating atmospherical pheno- 
mena, the different currents and electrical states of the air, and 
other particulars. At the same time, descriptions and explana- 
tions might be given to the assembled multitude, of the nature of 
balloons, the principle on which they ascend, the mode of inflating 
them, the facts which have been ascertained by means of them in 
regard to the upper regions of the atmosphere, the nature and use 
of the parachute, and various details in relation to aerial naviga- 
tion. — 2. Panoramas, or perspective exhibitions, on a large scale, 
of ancient and modern buildings, cities, towns, ranges of moun- 
tains, sea-ports, volcanoes, grottos, romantic rural scenery, and 
whatever is grand, beautiful, and interesting, in the scenes of Na- 
ture and Art. Such panoramic scenes, while they could not fail 
to gratify every spectator, would convey to the mind ideas which 
could not be derived from any other source, except the actual 
view of the objects represented. — 3. Camera obscuras, on a large 
scale, constructed in the manner formerly described, (p. 242.) 
If these were constructed with large lenses of twenty or thirty 
feet focal distance, their magnifying power, on distant objects, 
would be equal to that of a telescope magnifying from thirty to 
about fifty times, which would show the distant scenery of a coun- 

0-4 



398 



DIRECTION OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 



try with great minuteness, and people, sheep, and other animals, 
at the distance of many miles, while more than a score of persons 
at one time might contemplate such a scene. — 4. Telescopes, con- 
structed of a single convex lens, or a concave speculum of a long 
focal distance, for example, from twenty-five to forty feet, might 
be fixed in certain positions, so that several individuals at the 
same time might perceive their effect on distant objects. Sir W. 
Herschel informs us that, by looking with his naked eye on the 
speculum of his forty feet telescope, without the interposition of 
any lens or mirror, he perceived distinctly one of the satellites of 
Saturn ; so that such an instrument would present a brilliant view 
either of the moon or of terrestrial objects. The manner of look- 
ing at objects with such an instrument is represented below, 
where A B represents a concave mirror or speculum of a long 




C 



focal distance, C the focal point, a little^ within which several spec- 
tators might stand with their faces to the speculum, and view the 
distant objects behind them. Were A B a large convex lens of a 
similar focus, the spectators could stand in a similar position and 
view the objects before them. — 5. Philosophical and chemical 
experiments, of various descriptions, on a large scale, might be 
exhibited — such as the explosion of a bladder full of oxygen and 
hydrogen gas, by means of an electric spark, which produces a 
tremendous sound — the breaking of a piece of glass or bladder, 
or a large square bottle, by the pressure of the atmosphere — the 
burning of charcoal or phosphorus in oxygen gas, which produces 
a most brilliant illumination — the ascent of turpentine, when 



DIRECTION OF TUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 399 

tinged of a red colour, through water in long glass tubes, which 
produces a beautiful effect — the burning of spirits of wine, after 
having been boiled, which produces an extensive and beautiful jet 
or spout of fire — the Chinese lights,* and an indefinite variety of 
similar striking experiments, all of which might, at the same 
time, be familiarly explained. 

Such exhibitions might be made either in large halls, in squares, 
or in open areas in the neighbourhood of towns, according to the 
nature of the exhibition ; and the best instrumental music might 
accompany them, and might occasionally be enlivened by the 
surrounding multitudes joining in unison with their voices. The 
expense of such exhibitions would be far less than the sums ge- 
nerally wasted in the encouragement of horse-racing, theatrical 
diversions, and similar amusements ; and, while they tended to 
increase rational information, and to gratify the principle of cu- 
riosity, would be much more congenial to the taste of intelligent 
minds. There are certain towns in this country whose magis-* 
trates give, from the public funds, more than a hundred guineas 
annually for the encouragement of horse-races, besides the ex- 
penses connected with the various preparations and erections 
deemed necessary on such occasions. Such sums, along with a 
small contribution from each individual, (for example, an English 
penny or twopence^) would, in general, be adequate to defray the 
expenses of such exhibitions. 

VI. Knowledge and rational enjoyment might be increased hy 
erecting observatories in every town and populous village. 

These observatories migjit be furnished, not only ^vith some 

* The Chinese lights are produced by the following composition ; — Take 
twelve parts of nitre, five and a half of sulphur, one-half of orpiment, one- 
half of indigo, one-half of gunpowder, all finely pounded and intimately 
mixed. When this composition is set fire to by a burning match, it pro- 
duces a most splendid illumination. In the year 1814, when peace with 
France was proclaimed, a friend of mine, at the request of the magistrates 
of Paisley, got a large quantity of this composition prepared, which was 
ignited on the parapet which surrounded the spire of the High Church of that 
town, and which burned for more than half-an-hour, producing the most bril- 
liant illumination over all the town, and was an object of curiosity at Glas- 
gow, about eight miles distant. It would be visible from elevated situations, 
more than thirty miles distant. Such was the splendour of the light, that 
the birds rose from their nests, and flew around it, as if it had been the rising 
sun. At the same time, a balloon, made of the allantois of a calf, was sent 
up into the atmosphere, and a number of large bladders, filled with oxygen, 
and hydrogen gas, were exploded, by being held in the Chinese lights, which 
produced sounds that were heard over all the town. The composition ex- 
pended on this occasion cost about ten pounds ; but a quantity sufficient 
for a common experiment may be procured for two or three shillings. 



400 IMPROVEMENT IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES, 

of the best achromatic telescopes for viewing terrestrial and celestial 
objects, but likewise with several articles of philosophical appa- 
ratus, and specimens of natural history. In studying the science 
of the heavens, there is nothing more gratifying to those who 
have acquired a relish for this subject, than to view the telescopic 
objects described by astronomers, such as the moons and belts 
of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, the crescent of Venus, the moun- 
tains and vales of the moon, the nebulae, the double stars, and 
other interesting celestial phenomena. Such views tend to pro- 
duce a higher reUsh for astronomical studies and rational investi- 
gations ; and no pictorial representations can serve as a substitute, 
or convey the same ideas as actual observations by good instru- 
ments. ' But the majority of rational inquirers and of the com- 
munity at large are deprived of such vie^ws, on account of the 
expense of such instruments. An establishment of . this kind 
might be set on foot, either by a grant of money from a public 
fund, or by subscription. All the instruments requisite, in the 
first instance, would be, a large achromatic telescope for viewing 
celestial phenomena, and an equatorial telescope, for illustrating 
practical astronomy, and viewing the stars and planets in the 
daytime. These might be purchased for about forty guineas, 
(see article Astronomy, pp. 320, 322,) and if an hundred and 
twenty individuals were to co-operate in such an undertaking, the 
subscription would be only seven shillings to each, and, if an ad- 
ditional subscription of about two ^hillings a-year were paid, in 
the course of a few years the apparatus might be considerably 
increased. One special advantage arising from the universal es- 
tablishment of observatories would be, that the true time might 
always be accurately ascertained, and the public clocks regulated 
accordingly — on which circumstance depends, in certain cases, 
the determining of the altitude of certain atmospherical pheno- 
mena, such as a fiery meteor, or a luminous arch, when seen by 
different observers in places distant from each other. 

VII. The improvement of towns, villages, and roads, is inti- 
mately connected with the advancement of society. 

There are few circumstances in the state of society which ex- 
hibit the folly and depravity of man in a more striking point of 
view, than the state of most of the cities and towns of Europe 
and other parts of the world — not even excepting the British em- 
pire. In some of our cities we have palaces, churches, colleges, 
and public buildings, of the most magnificent description, while 
the great mass of the population around are living in miserable 
habitations in narrow dirty lanes, which are seldom or never vis- 
ited by the rays of the sun, or the refreshing breeze. In the High 



WRETCHED HUMAN HABITATIONS. 401 

Street of Edinburgh and its environs, which contain a greater 
number of human habitations then any other spot of the same ex- 
tent on the surface of the globe, the inhabitants appear to be hud- 
dled together like so many rabbits in their cells. The houses are 
from five to eight and ten stories high, with numerous narrow 
lanes or closes, from four to six feet wide, branching from the 
street, and running down a great extent towards a hollow on each 
side. In these closes there is neither light nor pure air, but a 
continual gloom and noisome exhalations ; and the physical filth 
and darkness which abound are generally emblems of the moral 
pollution and scenes of depravity which are too frequently exhib- 
ited in such habitations. Such abodes are incompatible, not only 
with physical comfort, but with any attempts at improvement in 
knowledge ; and it is a kind of degradation to the nature of man, 
that any human beings should be doomed to spend their lives in 
such wretched habitations. It tends, not only to debase the moral 
character, but to prevent the expansion of the human intellect. 
Instead of an extensive landscape, adorned with flowers and ver- 
dure, and the view of the expansive canopy of heaven — the in- 
mates of such dwellings, for months and years, have nothing 
presented to the eye but a dead murky wall bespattered with filth, 
which confines the range of their vision within the compass of a 
few feet, and prevents them from becoming acquainted even with 
the common scenes of nature. What has been now stated will 
apply in a greater or less degree to almost all our cities and large 
towns, and even to some of our villages. Were we to inquire 
into the circumstances which led men thus to immure themselves 
in gloomy holes and corners, like bats and owls, we should doubt- 
less find that the abominable system of warfare has been one of 
the chief causes of the evil of which we complain. Man, living 
at enmity with his fellow-man, judged it expedient to surround 
his habitations with a huge wall for protection against the inroads 
of his hostile neighbours ; — and the problem to be solved, in this 
case, seems to have been, ' In how small a space can we compress 
the greatest number of inhabitants, so that our wall and fortifica- 
tionfi shall cost us the least trouble and expense?' Small towns 
and villages which were afterwards built, and which required no 
fortifications, copied the plan and dimensions of their streets from 
the fortified towns, and thus the whole of our cities, towns, and 
villages have been bungled and deranged. 

Great cities, especially when ill-planned, may be considered as 
great evils. The Creator evidently intended that the population 
of the globe should be more equably distributed than it is at 
present. We are told that " He created it not in vain, hut for?ned 

34* 



402 IMPROVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 

it to he inhabited.'' But, how monstrous a disproportion is there 
in the distribution of its population, when we find a mass of hu- 
man beings, as in London, compressed into a space of little more 
than 20 square miles, and a similar mass, in another part of the 
same island, spread over an extent of 20,000 square miles ! There 
appears to be no reason, except in a very few cases, why any 
city should extend beyond a, population of a hundred thousand 
inhabitants ; and a city containing such a population should oc- 
cupy five times the area that it does at present. Towns distribut- 
ed at nearly equal distances over the face of a country, would be 
of far more importance for the general improvement of society 
than a few crowded cities with an overgrown population, and 
more conducive to the health and morals of the inhabitants. — 
There is one circumstance that characterizes almost all our cities, 
towns, and villages, except in some recent instances ; and that is, 
the extreme narrowness of the streets, some of which do not ex- 
ceed 15 or 20 feet in width. Even in the United States of Ame- 
rica, where the towns have been more recently built, and formed 
on more expansive plans than in Europe, this evil is found to 
exist. The street Broadway, in New-York, which is so much 
celebrated, and which is 3 miles in length, is only 80 feet broad, 
and most of the other streets are considerably narrower. Most 
of the streets in Philadelphia are little more than 50 feet broad, 
except Broad street and Market street, the latter being 100, and 
the former 113 feet in breadth. Most of the small towns, how- 
ever, in the Northern States, such as New-Haven, Northampton, 
and others, are described by travellers as having broad streets 
and spacious squares, and remarkable for their cleanliness and 
beauty. In Great Britain, most of the streets, especially in sea- 
port towns, are wretchedly narrow and dirty. In North-Shields, 
county of Northumberland, the main street is nearly a mile long, 
but so narrow that in many places two carriages cannot pass 
each other. The New Town of Edinburgh, which contains the 
most spacious and elegant streets of any city in Europe, is dis- 
graced with two or three long narrow streets, not above one-fourth 
the breadth of the others, intended for the residence of the lower 
classes; as if they had no right to enjoy a free light, pure air, 
and a cheerful prospect, as well as their superiors. — The follow- 
ing hints are suggested in relation to the improvement of towns 
and villages ; though I have no hope of living to see them realized 
in my native country. 

1. Most of our crowded towns should be demolished, or at least 
their streets ought to be widened, at an average three times their 
present breadth. Extravagant as this proposal may appear, there 



IMPROVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 403 

is nothing that stands in the way of its accomplishment but selfish- 
ness and avarice. If the promotion of the comfcrt and happiness 
of our species were the great object of our ambition, all difficulties 
would soon evanish, and all obstructions would speedily be re- 
moved; and why call ourselves Christians^ if this object is not 
kept in view 1 — 2. No street in any town or village should be 
less than 80 feet wide. In large towns, where the houses are 
above two or three stories in height, the streets should not be less 
than 100 or 120 feet in breadth. — 3. Narrow lanes and closes, of 
all descriptions, ought to be for ever banished from all our^ towns 
and cities. — 4. The practice of sinking stories below the level of 
a street, unless for cellars, should be laid aside. It has become 
an almost universal practice in Edinburgh, and other towns, 
especially in genteel houses, to have a sunk story for the kitchen 
and servants' rooms, as if they were unworthy of enjoying free 
light and pure air, and their health in no danger from the damp- 
ness of such apartments. There is something absurd and pre- 
posterous in being at the expense of digging a hole for the under 
story of a house, when a kitchen and laundry could be built be- 
hind the house, on the level of the street, which would be more 
convenient and salubrious. — 5. Houses might be built with fat 
roofs, with a parapet surrounding them, breast high, which would 
form a promenade for tamilies in towns, where they would enjoy 
an airing and a prospect of surrounding objects, without remov- 
ing from their own dwellings. It would also serve for drying 
clothes, contemplating the heavens, and various other purposes. 
In Eastern countries, where the houses are constructed with flat 
roofs, they form the sleeping places of the family during the 
summer months. The rain that falls upon them might be so 
conducted as to supply every family with water for washing, and 
cooking victuals. — 6. Squares, crescents, or octagonal spaces, 
should be appropriated in different parts of a town, for bazaars, 
or shops where all kinds of merchandise should be sold ; each 
shop having an apartment or two connected with it, for the tem- 
porary accommodation of a family. — 7. The streets more parti- 
cularly appropriated for dwelling-houses, should have verandas 
or garden-plots in front of the houses on each side, diversified 
with shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, and, at certain regular dis- 
tances, a few forest trees, so that the styeet, although 80 feet 
bvoad, would require only about 40 feet of pavement. — 8. In 
every large city, open spaces, within the city, should be set apart 
for pleasure walks for the citizens, and diversified with trees, 
evergreen, shrubs, seats, and bowers for shelter from the heat or 
rain. In small towns, such rural walks should be formed to go 



404 PLAN OF A TOWN. 

quite round them. — 9. A square plot of meadow ground, at each 
end of a town, might be set apart for public meetings, amuse- 
ments, or exhibitions, which might also serve for grazing, bleach- 
ing, promenading, and other purposes. — 10. Certain streets might 
be allotted for houses of one or two stories, for the accommoda- 
tion of those who have it not in their power to occupy more state- 
ly mansions, so as to preserve uniformity in every street ; but 
such streets should be equally broad, and adorned in the same 
manner as the other streets. — 11. Between the different streets 
should be garden-plots for every family, and accommodation for 
washing and bleaching, as also for erecting workshops for smiths, 
carpenters, weavers, &c. wherever they are required. — 12. En- 
couragement should be given in the neighbourhood of large towns, 
and throughout the country at large, for building towns on such 
plans, and for transforming our present hamlets and villages into 
more convenient and pleasant places of residence. If mankind 
were united by the bonds of Christian affection, and if all were 
as anxious to promote the happiness of their fellow-men, as the 
greater part are to hoard up wealth and riches which they can 
never enjoy, all the improvements now suggested could easily be 
accomplished within the course of a few years, or, at farthest, 
within the limits of the next generation. But so long as avarice 
sways its sceptre over the human breast, no extensive improvement, 
either in knowledge, religion, or physical comfort can be effected. 
The following engraving exhibits a plan of a town of a mode- 
rate size, which, with a few modifications, according to circum- 
stances, might be copied, in the formation of new. towns and vil- 
lages. In this plan all the streets cross one another in right an- 
gles, and are supposed to be at least 80 feet broad. In the cen- 
tre there is a circular space about 240 feet diameter, from which 
four streets diverge to each quarter of the town. The central 
part of this circle might be formed into a bowling green, diversi- 
fied with shrubs and flowers ; or a circular tower might be erected 
in the midst of it to overtop the surrounding buildings, on the top 
of which a large camera obscura and some telescopes might he 
placed, for the purpose of surveying the heavenly bodies, or the 
surrounding country. The four openings into this circular space 
might be about forty feet wide, or half the breath of the streets, 
which would afford the houses at each end of the four crescents 
a commanding view, not only of the interior of the circle, but of 
the whole street in' both directions. Instead of a circle, an octa- 
gon, if judged more convenient, might be adopted. Directly op- 
posite this central circle, on the north and south extremities of 
this town., are two squares, each of whose sides is about 170 ihet 



PLAN or A SMALL TOWN. 
Public Walk. 



405 






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PLAN OF A STREET. 



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406 ITINERATING LIBRARIES. 

long, and at the east and west extremities two crescents, about 
360 feet diameter. Iif each of the squares, and in the middle 
part of the crescents, a church or other public building might 
be erected ; and the entrance to these squares, &;c. from the coun- 
try, might be by a broad arch-way under one of the buildings. 
The principal shops might be placed, and the principal business of 
the town transacted, in the squares, crescents, and central circle. 
The spaces between the backs of the houses in the different 
streets might be set apart either for gardens, washing-houses, or 
workshops for the different mechanical professions. These spaces 
should be from 120 to 150 feet wide. A walk should be made 
to go round the whole town, decorated with trees, shrubs, and 
bowers ; and on each side of the town should be a large common 
or bleaching green. The extent of such a town would be about 
a mile and a quarter in circumference, but might be indefinitely 
extended according to circumstances. Such a town would un- 
doubtedly be much more commodious, pleasant, and salubrious 
than most of the small towns and villages that now exist. 

VIII. Knoivledge might he diffused at a cheap rate by means 
of itinerating libraries. — Of late years small libraries have been 
established in most of our populous villages, and in connection 
with christian churches; but the want of sufficient funds prevents 
the purchase of such a variety of books, as is sufficient to keep 
alive the attention for any number of years. In the year 1817, 
the plan of itinerating libraries was suggested by Mr. Samuel 
Brown of Haddington, and, under his auspices, was commenced 
in East Lothian and the neighbouring districts. The object is, 
" to furnish all the towns and villages of the country with libraries 
of useful books, and to plant them at such distances that no in- 
dividual, may be more remote from one than a mile and a half." 
" The books are formed into divisions of fifty volumes each. One 
of these divisions is stationed in a place for two years, and the 
books are issued to all persons above twelve years of age who 
will take proper care of them. After that period it is removed 
to another town or village, and a new division is sent in its room, 
which after other two years is again exchanged for another." By 
this means a perpetual succession of new books is introduced into 
each town and village, the principle of novelty is gratified, and 
the interest of the readers kept alive. The books are kept for a 
few years for the use of annual subscribers of five shillings. 
They are afterwards formed into divisions of fifty volunies, and 
are lent the first year for one penny a volume, (provided it is not 
kept longer than one month) and gratis the second. One of the 
principal features of these libraries is their cheapness. A single 



ITINERATING LIBRARIES. 407 

library of fifty volumes, with book-case, catalogue, labels, adver- 
tisements, and issuing books may be procured for about £10 at 
an average, as they are purchased on the most economical plan. 
Were a British and Foreign Itinerating Library Society establish- 
ed in London, that could raise £10,000 annually, it is calculated 
that, in conjunction with the small sums furnished by the readers, 
there could be established, in the course of twenty years, a library 
for every 524 persons in Great Britain and Ireland, taking the 
population at twenty millions ; and in twenty-five years, for every 
294 persons, which would be a complete supply for the wants of 
the whole population. And what would such a sum be to the 
British Government, which is extravagant enough to waste twenty 
times that sum every year in bestowing pensions on those who 
neither deserve them nor stand in need of them 1 The great object 
of these libraries is to promote the interests of religion, in con- 
nection with the study of history, biography, voyages and travels, 
and all the popular and useful branches of science. They have 
been supported and patronized by the most respectable persons in 
the country, and have met with almost unprecedented success. 
They have been introduced into several other counties in Scotland 
and Ireland, and in some of the West India islands, and even in 
South Africa. The number of volumes connected with the East 
Lothian itinerating libraries now amounts to nearly thitee thou- 
sand. In some of the divisions every volume has been issued 
about 120 times, and many of them much oftener. Mr. Brown, 
who has directed and superintended these libraries for eighteen 
years, deserves the thanks of his country for his benevolent and 
unremitting exertions.* In several cities and towns in America, 
such as Philadelphia and Albany, libraries have been established 
for the use of apprentices, both male and female. The appren- 
tices' library in Philadelphia contains above 8000 volumes. Al- 
though well-selected libraries are of immense importance for the 
diffusion of knowledge, yet no person, who has it in his power to 
purchase a few good books occasionally, ought to confine his read- 
ing to the books of a public library ; but in conjunction with the 
use of such books, should endeavour to furnish himself with 
selections of some of the best standard books in the language, 
which he may study at leisure, and to which he may immediately 

* Mr. S. Brown is a son of the Rev. John Brown, of Haddington, well 
known as the author of the " Self-Interpreting Bible," ", Dictionary of the 
Bible," " System of Divinity," and many other works. His exertions, and 
the beneficial effects which have flowed from them, show how much even 
n individual engrossed in an extensive business has it in his power to per- 
form, when his aims are directed to promote the good of mankind. 



408 INSCRIPTIONS ON FURNITURE, ETC. 

refer for any particular information of which he is desirous. 
Every general reader should, if possible, be furnished with an 
English Dictionary, a portable Encyclopedia, a summary of 
universal history, and some of the best systems of popular science. 

IX. Knowledge might be promoted hy delineations and inscrip- 
tions on various articles of furniture. 

We have, for example, many kinds of bowls, drinking vessels, 
&c. made of porcelain or earthen ware, on which many foolish 
inscriptions and devices are engraved. We have likewise car- 
pets, bed-curtains, handkerchiefs, &c. on which groups of fan- 
tastic figures, and various distorted representations of natural and 
artificial objects, are depicted, which serve no purpose but that of 
exhibiting a gaudy show. — Now, if, instead of such paltry de- 
vices, moral sentiments and maxims, pithy sayings, and sentences 
descriptive of certain historical and scientific facts, such as those 
formerly specified, (pp. 132 — 406.) were inscribed on the arti- 
cles to which I allude, useful nints might be communicated and 
rendered familiar wherever we turned our eyes, and might occa- 
sionally suggest topics for useful conversation. In like manner, 
were real objects in nature and art depicted on china-ware, drink- 
ing vessels, printed cotton handkerchiefs, window-curtains, car- 
pets, and similar articles, in place of the fantastical figures usu- 
ally delineated, which have no prototypes in nature, a considera- 
ble fund of information might in this way be imparted. For pictures, 
when true to nature and correctly delineated, convey useful 
knowledge as well as books, and sometimes in a more pleasant 
and rapid manner ; and there is no more difficulty in engraving 
real objects than in depicting the distorted and fantastic objects 
which are usually represented ; and in course of time, every ra- 
tional person would be induced to consider every thing as beauti- 
ful which is really useful* In following out these suggestions, 
we might have paper hangings and carpets diversified with maps 
of the world and of particular countries — bed and window cur- 
tains adorned with public buildings, landscapes, views of caverns, 
grottos, volcanic mountains, cataracts, steam-carriages, air-pumps, 
telescopes, foreign trees, shrubs, and animals — our plates, tea- 
cups and saucers decorated with miniature pictures of similar ob- 
jects, accompanied with wise sayings, immutable truths and short 
statements of important facts. In this way a fund of sententious 
wisdom, in connection with views of interesting scenery, might 
be introduced into every family ; which would tend to excite in- 
quiry, to lead to improving conversation, and to deter from the m 
pursuit of vicious and criminal courses. A king was said to ■ 
have been saved from being poisoned by his cup-bearer, by the 



IMPROVEMENT IN SOCIAL REGULATIONS. 



409 



followin«T motto engraved on the cup which contained the Ppison, 
" Newev begin any action of which thou hast not well considered 
the e«rf."— It is evident, that the above hints might be reduced to 
practice with as much ease and cheapness as silly and licentious 
inscriptions and clumsy castles in the air; and that almost every 
article of dress and furniture, every garden bower, and evej-y 
rural and architectural decoration, might in this way be rendered 
subservient to human knowledge and improvement ; provided so- 
ciety would give encouragement to such devices. But, hitherto, 
the foolish and depraved character of man has displayed itself in 
this as well as in almost every othel- department of his actions. 

X. The improvement of society requires that changes and 
alterations be made in many of our established laws, regulations, 

and customs. 

The laws and practices to which I allude are so numerous, that 
I shall mention only two or three as a specimen. 1. All taxes 
connected ivith the diffusion of knotvledge should be wholhj and 
for ever abolished. These include taxes on the materials and 
the manufacture of paper, which, besides directly adding to the 
price of this article, are found to be extremely vexatious to the 
manufacturer, and prevent him from getting his articles rapidly 
conveyed to the market— taxes on newspapers, engravings, pam- 
phlets, periodical works, and advertisements of books and other' 
articles of trade— and taxes, too, in the shape of entering books 
in " Stationers' Hall," depriving the author or publisher of thir- 
teen copies of his work, however valuable and expensive, which 
in certain cases will amount to the sum of £200 or £300. Were 
these and all other taxes connected with literature abolished, and 
an economical mode of printing adopted, books might be pur- 
chased at little more than one-half of their present price. In this 
connection, too, it may be stated, that the charges demanded for 
the insertion of advertisements of books in newspapers, magazines, 
and other periodicals, are extravagantly high, and add, in no 
inconsiderable degree, to the price of literature. In consequence 
of the tax on newspapers there are only 30 millions of them cir- 
culated in Great Britain and Ireland, which is but the one twenty- 
fifth part of the number circulated in the United States of Ame- 
rica, which contain little more than half the population of the 
British empire. In England there is only one newspaper to 46,000 
inhabitants.— 2. The postage of letters should be greatly reduced. 
The conveyance of letters is scarcely a fair subject of taxation, 
if we wish to facilitate the interchange of sentiment and friendship 
among mankind. It tends to prevent the poor man from corre- 
spondTntT with his friends and relatives at a distance— to prevent 

35 



410 ABOLITION ^OF TAXES. 

communications being sent to periodicals — and to abridge the cor- 
respondence of men of literature and science, some of whom have 
very little money to spare. 1 have known persons of this descrip- 
tion taxed in this way, to the amount of three or four shillings, 
and even of half-a-guinea in one day, when such sums were 
imperatively required for procuring the necessaries of life. — It is 
likewise unfair, and absolutely unjust, that the inhabitants of vil- 
lages, who are generally poorer than those in towns, should pay 
more for letters and newspapers than others. While a person in 
a large town receives a daily newspaper from London gratis, the 
villager, only four miles farther distant, pays for the conveyance 
of the same paper, twenty-six shillings a year, besides paying an 
additional penny for all his letters.* The postage of letters should 
be so regulated that all may enjoy an equal benefit — that every 
facility may be afforded for transmitting them to foreign countries, 
whether belonging to the British dominions or not, — and the 
charge for letters and packages should be no more than what is 
sufficient to defray all the expenses of the Post-office establish- 
ment ; as is the case in the United States of America. Under 
certain regulations all proof sheets of any work sent to the author 
for corrections should be free of postage. In these and many 
other respects our Post-office regulations require a thorough 
investigation and amendment. "j" — 3. The names of ships and 
steam-vessels should be painted in large characters on the most 
conspicuous parts of these vehicles. If the names of ships are 
intended to distinguish them from each other, it appears prepos- 
terous and truly ridiculous, to have the name depicted on the 
lower part of the stern, which always stands in an oblique posi- 
tion, and which is seldom or never seen, when approaching an- 
other vessel or towards the shore. If the name of a vessel were 
painted in large characters on each side of the bow, it might be 
distinguished by a good telescope at the distance of four or five 
nviles, whereas it is sometimes difficult to read the name of a ves- 
sel on the stern at the distance of a few yards. As it is interest- 
ing in many cases, not only to the owners of ships, but to those 
who have friends and relatives on board, to be able^o distinguish 
any particular vessel, when it first makes its appearance, the hint 
now given cannot be deemed altogether unimportant. — 4. The 
practice of paying waiters, chambermaids, boot-boys, and ostlers 



* Here I allude to the Penny posts lately established in most of our 
villages. 

t In America the postage for 30 miles is 6 cents, equal to 3d. English ; 
80 miles, 10 cents; 120 miles, 12i cents; 400 miles, 18 cents, &c. 



TRACTICES WHICH SHOULD BE DISCARDED. 411 

at inns, servant-maids, &c. at private houses, and guards and 
postilions in stage-coaches, should be universally discarded — as 
creating unnecessary trouble and expense to travellers, and fos- 
tering a spirit of meanness, impudence, and avarice, in the per- 
sons occupying such situations. It would be conducive both to 
the moral and pecuniary interests of all parties concerned, Mere 
such customs abolished. Mr. Stuart informs us, that no such 
custom prevails in the Northern States of America, and that it 
would be convsidered in almost every instance as an insult, to offer 
such persons a gratuity for performing their duty. This absurd 
and degrading practice has been handed down to us by the aris- 
tocracy, the servants of whom are always on the watch for gra- 
tuities from strangers and visitors. A literary gentleman, Dr. 

, who had frequently been invited to dine with Lord , 

was one day accosted by his lordship, and asked why he had not 
for a long time past complied with his invitation to dinner] 
" Why," replied the doctor, " because I cannot afford it; I can 
dine at my own apartments for less than two shillings, but when 
I dine with your lordship it costs me at least ^ve shillings — every 
one of your servants, at my departure, holding out his hand, and 
expecting a half-crown or a shilling at least to be given him." — 
5. Another abominable custom which prevails at public meetings, 
and which should be discarded, is, hissing and groaning at cer- 
tain speakers, or at the sentiments they express. A hiss or a 
groan may display the malignity of those who utter it, and their 
antipathy to the opinions expressed, but it never embodies a rea- 
son or an argument to confute the speaker, or convince the audi- 
ence of the futility of his sentiments. ■ In all deliberative assem- 
blies, every speaker who conducts himself with decorum should 
be listened to without interruption, and facts and argvments 
brought forward to confute his positions, if they be untenable. 
To attempt to put down a speaker by hisses or groans is incon- 
sistent with the dignity of an assembly of rational beings — is cha- 
racteristic of a rabble, or a company of boors, ratl^cr than an 
assemblage of men of intelligence — and generally indicates the 
2veakness of the cavse which such conduct is intended to support. 
— 6. Our civil and criminal codes require to he simplijled and 
re-modelled, and formed on the principles of equity and natural 
justice. Many of their enactments are repugnant to reason and 
religion, and inconsistent with the dictates of philanthropy and 
common sense, and with the spirit of an enlightened age. The 
expense of law processes, as presently conducted, amounts to a 
prohibition of a poor man's obtaining justice in any case where 
he has suffered an injury; and the multiplicity of statutes and 



412 INTERCOURSE OF NATIONS. 

precedents, the vagueness of their language, and the unintelligible 
jargon of terms and phrases connected with them, frequently lead 
to almost interminable litigations, till the whole value of the sub- 
ject in dispute is more than expended, and the litigants reduced 
to poverty. Our civil code requires to be cancelled, and recon- 
structed, de novo, on principles similar to the " Code Napoleon" 
— and our penal statutes require to bo remodelled in such a man- 
ner, that punishments may be proportioned to crimes, and that 
they be of such a nature as to promote the reformation of the 
criminal. 

The above are merely specimens of customs, laws, and usages, 
which require to be either modified or abolished, in order to pro- 
mote the advancement of society. 

XI. The diffusion of knowledge, and the improvement of man- 
kind, are, in some measure, dependent on a friendly intercourse 
being established among all civilized nations. 

Hitherto, nations, even those that are adjacent to each other, 
have acted towards other nations with a. spirit of selfishness and 
jealousy, as if they were beings of a different species, and had no 
common relation as brethren, or as children of the same Benevo- 
lent and Almighty Parent. Harassing restrictions, duties, excise 
regulations, and every other impediment, are thrown in the way 
of travellers, when passing from one country to another, as if the 
interests of one class of human beings were set in opposition to 
those of another. When a traveller passes from England to 
France he must pay for a passport, and should he happen to lose 
it he is treated as a rogue or a spy. When he passes from Hol- 
land to Britain, and carries an old Dutch Bible along with him, 
before he can convey it from the shore he must pay a duty to the 
amount of far more than its value. When he is about to embark 
at Liverpool for America, his trunks and packages are searched, 
duties demanded, and a host of petty tyrants under the excise vex 
and harass him in all his arrangements ; when he lands on the 
other side of the Atlantic, he is subjected to a similar ordeal ; and 
when he returns to England with a few volumes of American 
literature, his luggage is again subjected to a strict scrutiny, and 
he must pay a shilling for every pound weight of knowledge he 
has imported.* Besides the spirit of warfare, which has so fre- 

^ The following instance, among many others, shows the harassing nature 
of custom-house restrictions : — A. Davidson, A. M., a celebrated lecturer 
on experimental philosophy and chemistry, after having returned from Ire- 
land to Liverpool, had his packages, containing an extensive apparatus, 
thrown into the custom-house, which were not permitted to be removed till 
they should be minutely inspected. Tliey consisted chiefly of glass cylin- 



INSTRUCTION? OF SEAMEN, 413 

quently interrupted the correspondence of nations, — such harass- 
ing and vexatious restrictions have a tendency to foster a princi- 
ple of antipathy, and to impede the progress of knowledge. They 
are founded on a principle of selfishness and malignity, and, like 
all such principles, they frustrate even the pecuniary object they 
were intended to promote ; for, in point of fact, so lar from in- 
creasing the wealth of a nation, they tend in many ways to dimin- 
ish its resources. Were all such restrictions and exactions abol- 
ished, philanthropic travellers might make a tour through the 
nations without being annoyed — the manufactures and natural 
productions of every country could be afforded at a much cheaper 
rate than at present — and the hundred thousands of pounds and 
dollars annually expended in keeping up a numerous retinue of 
excise ofiicers and underlings, would be saved for the purposes of 
national improvement. The most enlightened political economists 
now agree that Free Trade should be universally encouraged, and 
that extraordinary restrictions upon the importation of goods are 
injurious to the wealth and prosperity of nations. 

Xlf. The improvement of society requires that particular atten- 
tion be paid to the intellectual and religious instruction of seamen. 

The British navy includes about 30,000 men ; the British mer- 
chant service about 220,000, of whom about 100,000 are en- 
gaged in the coasting trade, and 120,000 in the foreign trade. 
The coast-guard service includes 21,000 individuals; and there 
are of fishermen, watermen, and boatmen, probably not less than 
50,000 persons, beside their families, amounting in all to above 



ders, globes, receivers, &c. of all descriptions, which required several days 
and much exertion to get packed ; and they could not be unpacked, in such 
a situation, without considerable expense and great loss of time, and the 
risk of having a great part of the ajjparatus broken and destroyed. He of- 
fered to unpack them in the presence of excise officers, in the apartments 
he had procured for the purpose ; but this was refused. He called day after 
day at the custom-house about the matter, but to no purpose. One under- 
Hng gave him a sealed card, containing about two lines of writing, to carry 
to another underling, for which he charged half-a-crown ; this last gave him 
a similar card to a third person, for which the same charge was made ; this 
third person gave another half-cvoivii card, to be handed to a fourth person, 
who could give him the requisite information, but this fourth person could 
never be found ; and thus he was bandied about from one harpy to another, 
and filched out of four or five half-crowns. In this way, three weeks were 
wasted to no purpose, till by accident he met with a gentleman connected 
with the custom-house, with whom he was formerly acquainted, who got 
his packages released, after he had been subjected to much trouble, expense, 
and anxiety, and lost nearly a month, during which his lectures might have 
been nearly finished. Regulations which lead to such impositions and per- 
plexities, require to be speedily abolished. 

35* 



414 INSTRUCTION OP SEAMEN. 

320,000 individuals, exclusive of their wives and children. An 
immense number of this class of men is likewise connected with 
the United States of America, but I have no data on which to 
form an estimate of their amount. A great proportion of these 
persons have been brought up in debasing ignorance, both of 
general knowledge and of the truths of religion, and they are 
too frequently addicted to habits of profaneness and intemperance. 
They form, however, a most important and interesting class of 
our fellow-men — they are frequently distinguished for heroism, 
humanity, and a noble generosity ; and, were they generally in- 
structed in useful knowledge and Christian morals, they might be 
rendered useful agents in promoting the good of mankind both at 
home and abroad. The '' British and Foreign Sailors' Society" 
was formed sometime ago, " for promoting the moral and religious 
improvement of seamen." Of this society, Lord Mountsandford 
is president ; Alderman Pirie, and G. F. Angas Esq., treasurers ; 
the Rev. Dr. Cox, and the Rev. T. Timpson, secretaries — gentle- 
men distinguished for their activity in every department of phi- 
lanthropic labour. The principal scene of their labour is the 
port of London, where the gospel is preached, and prayer meet- 
ings held on board ships, every evening, by agents of the society, 
who distribute Bibles, religious books and tracts, and enter into 
conversation with the seamen on moral and religious subjects. 
They have already spent upwards of £2000 in fitting up a chapel 
and other buildings, and have provided 140 " Loan Ship Libra- 
ries," comprising 4000 volumes, now abroad in many vessels ; 
and 50 small libraries for the fishing smacks sailing from the 
Thames ; besides the " Vestry Library," which contains upwards 
of 3000 volumes, daily open to sailors in the depot of the chapel ; 
— but the want of adequate funds prevents them from enlarging 
the sphere of their operations. To complete such benevolent ar- 
rangements, it would be requisite, could funds be procured, to 
establish schools on a moral and intellectual principle, some of 
them adapted to the children of sailors, and others for the rational 
instruction of adults. Lectures on popular Science, accompanied 
with experiments, might likewise be occasionally delivered ; and 
the religious books contained in the libraries blended with popular 
and interesting publications on geography, astronomy, history, 
voyages, travels, and other departments of knowledge. Were 
sailors well instructed and moralized, they might improve their 
own minds by reading and conversation, during long voyages, 
and feel a superior degree of enjoyment to what they now 
experience ; they might be the means of promoting both know- 
ledge and religion in foreign lands — they might soon be accus- 



COUNTERACTION OF AVARICE. 415 

tomed to contemplate with intelligence the various scenes of na- 
ture which pass under their observation, and record them for the 
information of others — and thus become contributors to science, 
and benefactors to their species, instead of " increasing," as they 
often do, " the transgressors among men." 

XIII. In order to carry into effect the hints suggested in the 
preceding pages, societies might be formed for the promotion of 
education, and the general improvement of the social state. 

From the operations of Bible and Missionary Associations, it 
is evident how much may be achieved by the formation of socie- 
ties for the accomplishment of a specific object. The societies to 
which I allude, including the Church Missionary, Scottish, Lon- 
don, Wesleyan, and several others, now raise nearly £300,000 
annually. The general object I would propose to accomplish by 
a new association, is as important as any other which has yet 
engaged the public attention ; for it lies at the foundation of all 
other philanthropic plans, and they can never be brought into 
extensive operation till it be accomplished. If all ranks were 
thoroughly instructed in knowledge and religion, and, conse- 
quently, led to appreciate the importance of Christianity, and the 
necessity of its universal propagation, the funds of our mission- 
ary institutions, and the energies with which they would be con- 
ducted, would be increased tenfold more than they now are, and 
few individuals would be found altogether indifferent to such no- 
ble enterprises. Such an association might be instrumental in 
calling the attention of the public to the subject — in diffusing in- 
formation respecting it — in detailing plans for accomplishing the 
grand object intended — in illustrating the noble and beneficial ef- 
fects which would flow from its accomplishment — and in exciting 
the more wealthy members of the community to contribute a 
portion of their substance for carrying forward the requisite ar- 
rangements. By such a society, with all the auxiliaries that 
might be formed throughout a nation, it would scarcely be too 
much to expect that a million of pounds might annually be pro- 
cured, which would render society nearly independent of the 
caprices and partialities of civil rulers, or of the grants of money 
which governments might either withhold or bestow. 

XIV. Before any plan for the improvement of mankind can be 
brought extensively into effect, the principle of avarice, as it now 
operates in society, must be counteracted and subdued. 

The great object of the majority of mankind appears to be, to 
acquire as much wealth as possible, not for the purpose of "Apply- 
ing it to the service of God and the good of society, but to gratify 
a selfish principle and an avaricious propensity — to make a 



416 COUNTERACTION OF AVARICE. 

splendid figure in life, to lay up portions for children, or merely 
to glory in the idea of having hundreds or thousands of guineas 
or bank-notes deposited in a chest, in the stocks, or other place 
of security. Every one seems to think that he may use his 
money just as he pleases, without being responsible to a higher 
Power; and even many of those who call themselves Christians, 
are glaringly guilty of that ^' covetousness which is idolatry," 
although they are pointedly admonished that "the love of money 
is the root of all evil," and, consequently, the prevention of much 
good ; and that " it leads into many snares and temptations, and 
foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and 
perdition." Nothing can be more irrational and degrading than 
for an immortal being to hoard up treasures which he never ap- 
plies to any useful purpose, and who only feasts his imagination 
with the idea that he has them, to a certain amount, in his posses- 
sion. Yet thousands of such characters exist even in the Christian 
world. What should we think of the man who took it into his 
head to lay up, in a large shed or garret, which was carefully 
locked up from public fiew, 5000 pair of boots, 10,000 tea-cups, 
20,000 coffee-pots, or 30,000 cork-screws, with no other view 
than to please his fancy, and to tell the world that he had such a 
number of articles in his possession? We should, doubtless, con- 
sider him as an arrant fool, or even as a downright madman. 
And what is the- difference between hoarding thousands of guineas, 
dollars, or bank-notes, which are never brought forth for the 
benefit of mankind, and accumulating fifty or a hundred thousand 
pair of boots, spurs, or knee-buckles ? How ridiculous would it 
appear if all that could be said of a man when he died was, that 
the great object of his life was to lay up in store 25,000 tea- 
kettles, which were never intended for cooking, and .30,000 great- 
coats, which were never intended to be worn ? Equally foolish 
and contemptible is it, to lay up thousands of pounds or dollars 
that are never consecrated to the glory of God or the good of 
man. I know individuals who are worth £1000 a year, and 
whose annual expenditure does not amount to above £l50; and 
I know others who are worth ten times that sum, who do not . 
spend above two or three hundreds a year ; — yet it is sometimes 
difficult to obtain from them a guinea, or even a few shillings, for 
a religious or philanthropic object ; and, were you to call in ques- 
tion their Christianity, it would be considered as little short of an 
insult.* 

' * The late distinguished philanthropist, J. B. Wilson, Esq. of Clapham 
Common, was once heard to say of one who had been looked up to as a 
good man and Christian, " He died wickedly rich," — evidently implying, 
that he thought such a man's Christianity was extremely doubtful. 



RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 417 

It becomes Christian churches and ministers seriously to con- 
sider this subject, if they wish to see the principles of pure Chris- 
tianity reduced to practice, and worldly maxims undermined, and 
if they would be instrumental in preparing the way for the uni- 
versal propagation of the gospel, and the arrival of the predicted 
Millennium. Were it not for the prevalence of the debasing prin- 
ciple of avarice, we should, ere long, have seminaries of all de- 
scriptions established among us, for training both the young and 
the old in knowledge and virtue, and " to glory and immortality" 
— we should have our towns and cities cleared of every nuisance 
— our roads and footpaths improved — our deserts turned into 
fruitful fields — new towns and villages erected on spacious plans 
— intelligence speedily and cheaply conveyed — the physical aspect 
of the country beautified and adorned — and the whole frame of 
society transformed and remodelled, in conformity with the prin- 
ciples of reason and religion. Were I to enter into minute cal- 
culations on this subject, it might easily be shown, that the wealth 
presently possessed by civilized nations, were it properly distrib- 
uted and applied, would be more than sufficient to introduce every 
improvement in society, physical, moral, and intellectual, of which 
the terrestrial state of man is susceptible — to raise the degraded 
mass of this world's population to intelligence and virtue — to bring 
into a state of cultivation almost every waste on the face of the 
globe — to intersect every country with canals and rail-roads — 
and to transform the whole earth into a paradise, scarcely inferior 
in beauty to that which appeared at the first creation. And those 
who expended their superfluous wealth in such noble achieve- 
ments, so far from having any of their sensitive enjoyments dimin- 
ished, would enjoy a happiness, both physical and mental, far 
surpassing any thing which they formerly experienced. 

Recapitulation and Conclusion. 
In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to illustrate a vari- 
ety of topics in reference to the education and general improve- 
ment of all classes of society — particularly the physical, moral, 
and intellectual instruction of infants — the advant^^ges which would 

result from the universal establishment of iiiVant schools the 

seminaries which require to be erected for the instruction of youth 
from the age of six to the age of fifteen years — the plan and ar- 
rangement of school-rooms, and the objects and apparatus with 
which they should be furnished — the principles on which school- 
books should be constructed — the modes of teaching, by which 
substantial knowledge and moral principle may be communi- 
cated — the branches of knowledge which should be taught to all 



418 RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 

classes of the community — the rational and intellectual processes 
by which a knowledge of them is to be conveyed — the moral and 
religious instruction of the .young — the manner in which Sabbath 
schools should be conducted, and the qualifications requisite for 
every teacher in such institutions — the seminaries which require 
to be established for young persons of both sexes from the age of 
fifteen to the age of twenty years or upwards — the qualifications 
requisite for teachers of all descriptions, and the seminaries which 
ought to be established for their instruction — the practicabilify 
of establishing all such institutions — the utility of such improve- 
ments in education, in counteracting crime, raising the moral and 
intellectual character of man, and preparing the way for the ap- 
proach of the millennial era — the principles on which national 
systems of education should be established — mechanics' institu- 
tions, and the improvements of which they are susceptible — with 
a variety of miscellaneous hints in reference to the diffusion of 
knowledge and the improvement of general society. 

Were such institutions once established throughout every part 
of our country and of the world at large, thoroughly imbued 
with the spirit of Christianity, and conducted with activity and 
zeal — there can be little doubt that they would, ere long, be ac- 
companied with the most interesting and beneficial results. We 
should soon behold ignorance, foolish prejudices, superstition, en- 
thusiasm, bigotry, and intolerance, with all their accompanying 
evils, gradually evanishing from the world, as the shades of night 
before the rising sun. We should behold the human mind aroused 
from the slumber of ages, exerting its energies on objects worthy 
of its high dignity and destination, and conducive to the improve- 
ment and the happiness of the social state. We should behold 
science enlarging its boundaries, the useful and ornamental arts 
carried to perfection, and the universe more fully explored through- 
out all its departments. For we should then have a thousand 
experimenters, and a thousand intelligent observers of the phe- 
nomena of nature, for one that exists in the present state of in- 
tellectual debasement. New and interesting experiments would 
be instituted, new facts explored, new regions of the universe laid 
open to view, and a nobleness, a vigour, and a lofty spirit of in- 
dependence, on every subject of thought, displayed by the human 
mind. We should behold avarice, pride, ambition, revenge, and 
other malignant passions, in a great measure extirpated ; and a 
spirit of love, affection, liberality, and harmony, pervading every 
department of the moral world. We should behold the Christian 
world approaching to a harmonious union — the spirit of jealousy 
and dissension laid to rest — the demon of persecution chased out 



PROSPECTS OF FUTURE AGES. 419 

of the world — the truths of religion and its holy principles recog- 
nised in every department and arrangement in society — the great 
realities of the eternal world contemplated in their true light, and 
men of all ranks walking hand-in-hand, as brethen of the same 
family, to the same glorious and incorruptible inheritance. 

In the progress of such institutions— when they shall have been 
brought into full operation — I behold, in the prospect of future 
ages, the most important transformations, and the most glorious 
results, in the improvement both of the intellectual and of the 
physical world. I behold the surface of the earth, at no distant 
period, adorned with vegetable and architectural beauties and em- 
bellishments — our deserts transformed into fruitful fields — our 
marshes drained — our moors and heath-clad mountains adorned 
with fruitful trees — our gardens producing the fruits of every 
clime — our highways broad and spacious, accompanied with 
cleanly footpaths, and at the distance of every half-mile furnished 
with seats and bowers for the shelter and refreshment of the 
passing traveller, and every bower furnished with Penny Maga- 
zines and other works for the instruction and amusement of every 
one who has leisure to peruse them — our abominable lanes and- 
closes, the seats of physical and moral pollution, completely de- 
molished and laid open to the light of heaven — our narrow streets 
expanding ihto spacious squares, cheered with the solar beams, 
and with rural prospects, and ventilated with the refreshing 
breeze — our densely crowded cities almost completely demolished, 
and new cities arising from their ruins, on noble and expansive 
plans, corresponding to the expansive state of the human mind. 

1 behold the climates of the earth meliorated by the hand of 
genius and industry — by the cutting down of forests, the draining 
of marshes, the improvement of sandy and rocky wastes, and 
the universal cultivation of the soil — the thunderbolts of heaven, 
wielded by the philosophic sage, and the forked lightnings, di- 
rected by the hand of art, to play in harmless coruscations in the 
regions of the clouds. — I behold locomotive engines, steam car- 
riages, and air balloons, brought to perfection, transporting mul- 
titudes of human beings from one city to another, from one nation 
to another, and from one continent to another, with a degree of 
velocity which has never yet been attempted. — I behold the sa- 
vage restored to.the dignity of his moral and intellectual nature, no 
longer roaming the desert wild and uncultivated like the beasts of 
prey, throwing aside his warlike bows and his battle-axes, direct- 
ing his faculties to the improvement of his species, and to the 
most sublime investigations. — I behold men of all nations and 
kindreds cultivating a harmonious and friendly intercourse ; — the 



420 FUTURE PROSPECT. 

tribes of New Holland, Borneo, Sumatra, and Madagascar, visit- 
ing the British Isles with the productions of their respective cli- 
mates, and holding literary and religious correspondence with the 
directors of our philosophical and missionary associations, on all 
the subjects of Christian and scientific investigation. 

I behold the scenery of the heavens more fully explored, and 
new prospects opened into the distant regions of the universe — 
the geography of the moon "brought to perfection, its mountains 
and vales thoroughly explored, and traces of the existence and 
operations of its inhabitants exhibited to view — the nature of 
comets ascertained — the causes of the various phenomena which 
appear on the planets explained — the construction of the sun and 
the nature of his spots determined — the sublime scenes connected 
with the new and variable stars, double and treble stars, and the 
many thousands of nebulcB dispersed through the regions of 
boundless space, more fully displayed — and the Divine character 
and perfections appearing with still greater lustre and magnifi- 
cence throughout the amplitudes of creation. 

I behold the ministers of religion expatiating, amidst thousands 
of intelligent worshippers, on higher themes and more diversified 
topics than those to which they are now necessarily restric*' ^ — 
not confining their attention merely to first principles, and iH a 
few fragments of the Christian system, but taking the whole of 
Divine Revelation as their text-book, and deriving their illustra- 
tions of it from the records of Providence, and from all the diver- 
sified scenes of the universe. — In fine, I behold the human soul, 
thus elevated and refined, and endowed with multifarious know- 
ledge, dropping its earthly tabernacle in the dust, and, in another 
and a higher region of existence, contemplating the economy of 
other worlds, exploring the wonders of Divine Wisdom and Om- 
nipotence throughout the immensity of creation, prying into the 
mysteries of human redemption, rising nearer and nearer to the 
Divinity, expatiating amidst objects of beauty and beneficence, 
and beholding new scenes of grandeur and felicity rising to view, 
in boundless perspective, while ages, numerous as the drops of 
the ocean, are rolling on. 

Let none imagine that such views are either romantic or Uto- 
pian — they are the necessary results of what will undoubtedly 
take place, when knowledge and Christian principles are univer- 
sally diffused. It is owing chiefly to ignorance and the preva- 
lence of malignant principles, that science has been so slow in 
its progress, that contention and warfare have wasted and demo- 
ralized the nations, that the earth has been left barren and un- 
cultivated, that savages have been permitted for ages to roam 



S;^ 



FUTURE PROSPECT. 421 

without arts and instruction, that religion has been neglected, and 
that so many evils, physical and moral, have been introduced 
into the social state. Remove the cause of existing evils, and 
opposite effects will be produced — effects surpassing, in benignity 
and grandeur, every thing which has occurred since time began. 
In the present age, distinguished from all the periods of time 
which have hitherto elapsed, these effects are beginning to ap- 
pear. All the movements now going forward in the moral, po- 
litical, scientific, and religious world, have an evident bearing on 
the approach of a more auspicious and enlightened era. The 
rapid progress of scientific discoveries, and of improvements in 
the arts — the numerous and cheap publications, on all subjects 
of useful knowledge, now issuing from the press, in hundreds of 
thousands at a time, and read by all classes of the community — 
the erection of public seminaries on new and improved plans, 
throughout different countries both of Europe and America — the 
establishment of philosophical institutions, missionary associa- 
tions, and reading societies, in every town, and almost in every 
parish — the extensive circulation of newspapers, magazines, and 
lit'^rary and religious journals, of all descriptions — the steam-boats 
- carriages which have been constructed, and the numerous 
canals and rail-roads which have been formed, for the speedy 
conveyance of passengers from one place to another, in order to 
facilitate the intercourse of human beings — the application of 
machinery to the different arts and manufactures, ff^v )n^j^„,^]j^^ 
the productions of human labour — the desire excited among an 
ranks, even the lowest, for rational information, and for inves- 
tigating every subject connected with the happiness of the social 
state — the abolition of slavery ^ with all its degrading accompani- 
ments — the reformations going forward both in Church and State 
— the spirit of liberty bursting forth among the nations in both 
hemispheres of the globe — the conversion of savage tribes to 
Christianity, and their advancement in knowledge and civiliza- 
tion, — these, and many similar movements, viewed in connection 
with the Divine declarations, that " Wars shall cease to the ends 
of the world," and that " the earth shall he filled with the know- 
ledge of Jehovah'''' — plainly point to a period which is on the 
wing, when the light of truth shall irradiate the inhabitants of 
every region, and when improvements of every description shall 
be introduced into every department of the physical and moral 
world. It only remains, that, as agents under the Moral Gover- 
nor of the world, we arouse ourselves from our present lethargy, 
and devote all our powers, and wealth, and energies, to the 
accomplishment of such glorious designs, resting assured, that 

36 



422 PRELUDES OF THE MILLENNIAL ERAS. 

" our labour," if conducted with wisdom and perseverance, "shall 
not be in vain in the Lord." 

In fine, if the world is ever to be enlightened and regenerated — 
if the predictions of ancient prophets are to be fulfilled — if the be- 
nevolent purposes of the Almighty, in relation to our world, are 
to be accomplished — if war is to cease its desolating ravages, and 
its instruments to be transformed into ploughshares and pruning- 
hooks — if selfishness, avarice, injustice, oppression, slavery, and 
revenge, are to be extirpated from the earth — if the tribes of man- 
kind are to be united in the bonds of affection, and righteousness, 
and praise spring forth before all nations — if the various ranks of 
society are to be brought into harmonious association, and united 
in the bond of universal love — if the heathen world is to be en- 
lightened, and the Christian world cemented in one grand and 
harmonious union — if the landscape of the earth is to be adorned 
with new beauties, and the wilderness made to bud and blossom 
as the rose — if " the kingdoms of this world are to become the 
kingdoms of our Lord and his Messiah," " the whole earth filled 
with his glory," and his sceptre swayed over the nations through- 
out all succeeding ages — these long-expected events will, undoubt- 
edly, be introduced by the universal instruction of all ranks, in 
every thing that has a bearing on their present happiness, and 
their immortal destiny. If we, therefore, refuse to lend our help- 
ing hand to the accomplishment of this great object, we virtually 
attfilPnt to frustrate the purposes of the Eternal, and to prevent 
cne present and future happiness of mankind. And while we pray 
to the " Great Lord of all," that he would " appear in his glory 
to men," and hasten the time when '^ his name shall be great 
from the rising to the setting sun," we only offer an insult to the 
Majesty of Heaven, while we refuse to consecrate our wealth and 
influence to his service, and to engage in holy activity as " work- 
ers together with God." We may legislate as we have hitherto 
done, for ages to come — we may make, unmake, and modify our 
civil laws, enforce hundreds of regulations and enactments for the 
punishment and prevention of crime — we may build thousands of 
churches and colleges, and academies without number — we may 
engage in profound discussions and investigations, and compass 
sea and land to make proselytes to our opinions ; but unless the 
foundations of society be laid in the rational and religious educa- 
tion of all classes of the young, our most specious plans will 
prove abortive, and our superstructures gradually crumble into 
dust, and, " like the baseless fabric of a vision, leave scarce a 
wreck behind." 



APPENDIX. 



Page. — Insanity from Excessive Study, 

The following instance of the effects of excessive study, and the danger 
of neglecting the animal functions, is extracted from the " American Annals 
of Education" for September, 1833. 

Mr. Joseph Frothingham, from Salem, State of Massachusets, was a stu 
dent of the Oneida Institute. In April, 1833, he was suddenly missed, and 
strong suspicions were entertained of his having been murdered. Nothing 
was heard of him, however, until a letter was recently received by his pi- 
rents, dated "Atlantic Ocean, 12th May, 1833, — 500 miles east "of Nevf- 
foundland Banks." The following extract from his letter will show to what 
account his abduction is to be charged : — " "While at the Institute, having 
nothing else to do, and wishing to get ahead, I applied myself very closely 
to study, (particularly the Latin grammar,) leaving oif only when absolute- 
ly necessary. You recollect I arrived during vacation, before the regular 
course of labour had commenced, and thinking I should have plenty of it 
in a few days, contented myself with taking very little exercise. The effects 
of this close application from sunrise till nine in the evening I soon per- 
ceived, and several times was sensible that my thoughts for a moment or 
two were rather wandering. Yet I did not feel at all anxious or discour- 
aged, reasoning with myself, that so sudden a change of pursuit must ne- 
cessarily cause me at first to feel rather unwell, and that after a few days 
my mind would recover its wonted tone. After the 5th or 6th of April, the 
little momentary aberrations became more frequent, and how I spent much 
of the time intervening between that date and the 8th, I am wholly unable 
to say. Some things which I did I recollect distinctly, and others only a? 
we recall the vagaries of a dream. But after the 8th, every thing is wrapt 
in confusion, — ' shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it.' I have a 
vague dim recollection of feehng something as if standing near a mountain, 
when a volcano bursts from the side. To escape the fiery deluge I travelled 
by sea and land, but ouAvard it still seemed to move, and ever to rear itself 
a wall of living fire. One only thing I can recollect clearly. Finding my- 
self in a strange street, near a large stone building, I inquired of a soldier 
the name of the place, and he answered, ' Montreal.' For a moment I 
wondered what could have brought me there, but then came confusion over 
my mind again, and not mi idea or incident can I recollect, until yesterday, 
about 10 a. m. when I found myself in the steerage of a ship bound from 
Quebec to Liverpool. I immediately communicated every thing to my fel- 
low-passengers, (a young man and wife,) and from them learned the follow- 
ing particulars." 

It appears that he met them accidentally, and embarked with them after 
making most of the necessary preparations ; and, after passing through va- 
rious difticulties in his way down the river, reached the ship. In conse- 
quence of the small sum of money which Mr. F. had, he was consigned to 
the steerage, but kindly supplied with necessaries by the captain. It was 
not until a week's confinement with sea-sickness (which perhaps was the 
very remedy which a kind Providence saw necessary) that he recovered his 



424 APPENDIX. 

recollection ; and then, he observes, his " mind, in an instant, was as clear 
and as rational as ever." The conclusion of his own letter will be more 
interesting than any abridgment. " The captain remarked, that he had 
sometimes suspected me to be a little deranged, and my fellow-passengers 
thought my appearance very odd at Quebec ; but as I was frequently en- 
gaged, while on board, in reading their books, they concluded it was owing 
to * absence of mind, and a naturally eccentric character.' They could hard- 
ly believe me, when I first made known to them my utter ignorance of every 
transaction since the time I met with them on the St. Lawrence. They 
told me I had been uniformly courteous and cheerful ; and that, when we 
Kvalked from the shore to a house during the storm, I carried her in my arms 
about half the way, she being too cold and wearied to walk. They were 
v/ell wrapped up in blankets, but I had nothing but my cloak, and got two 
of my fingers frozen. You can better conceive than I can express, how 
strangely I felt when reason first told me I was in the cabin of a vessel ; 
, and when I knew, from the pitching and tossing, that that vessel was on 
the ocean. I am in hopes of meeting with some vessel bound homeward ; 
and, if I cannot return in her, to send this letter. If we speak no vessel 
in which I can return, I shall probably take passage immediately after arriv- 
ing in Liverpool. Till then, I leave all other incidents connected with this 
almost incredible loss of reason. I do not doubt that study was the cause, 
and thus are all my hopes of going through college blasted — for I should 
not dare to make a second attempt. But I think nothing of that. / nm 
lost in -vonder that such a journey should have been performed in safety 
in such a singular absence of mind; and to think too that I even went 
through all, without ever losing my money, is most strange. My preserva- 
tion appears indeed miraculous — but I know not what to say. How thank- 
ful should I be to the Great Being who has guided and directed my wander- 
ings — thankful ! 'tis too tame a word. Words cannot express my feelings, 
--•Mind I leave all, for the contemplation almost overwhelms me." 
to I Mr. Frothingham has since returned, and confirms the whole account, 
to ' Would that his well-meant but mistaken zeal in study (says the editor) 
fj,Q]Tiight be the means of saving many now in danger from a result not less 
n| .'atal to future plans, and of preserving others from that partial mania — that 
. predominance of the body over mind, which we believe gives rise to not a 
^'^"few of the follies, and errors, and faults, of sedentary men. We will only 
crs add, as an example of a result more deadly, from a similar imprudence, that 
do one of the most diligent and promising students of an institution, returned 
Q] to his room after a long tour on foot, in perfect health, and, as he imagined, 
^. with a stock laid up on which he might draw. He sat down closely to study. 
The blood thus accumulated, which rushed to Mr. Frothingham's brain, in 
this case burst forth in a profuse discharge from the lungs ; and, after years 
spent in struggling, by the aid of a fine constitution, against the diseases 
and the elFects of study, he fell in the midst of the brightest prospects of 
usefulness, a victim to his hasty efforts to be a scholar. Would not a 
thorough knowledge of physiology preserve both sexes from incalculable 
evil 1" 

The very singular case of Mr. Frothingham, described above, suggests, 
both to the philosopher and the divine, a variety of interesting reflections in 
reference to the action of mind on the corporeal functions, and to the good- 
ness and care of a superintending Providence. He must have travelled 
more than two hundred miles by land and water, before he found himself 



APPENDIX. 425 

in Montreal ; and, as he could not be supposed to have taken the nearest 
road to that city, perhaps he may have travelled more than double that dis- 
tance, and crossed several lakes and rivers which abound in the territory 
through which he passed. He must have inquired for lodgings, paid for 
victuals, found out the different ferries where he behoved to cross, and all 
without being conscious where he was, or what was his object. With re- 
gard to the effect of study on the functions of the body and mind, I have 
every reason to believe, that those studies which are most abstruse, such as 
the ancient languages, metaphysics, and the higher branches of pure ma- 
thematics, when closely pursued, have the greatest tendency to injure the 
organic functions, and the mental powers ; while natural and civil history, 
geography, astronomy, and the other physical sciences, being conversant 
about sensible objects, will seldom produce such effects, when prosecuted 
with judgment and moderation ; so that those studies which are in reality 
most useful, will be found in few instances injurious either to the animal 
or mental powers. Mr. Frothingham was deeply absorbed in the study of 
Latin grammar when his mental aberration was induced. Were he to re- 
frain from such abstract studies, and apply himself with moderation to the 
more interesting departments of natural science, I should have no fear of 
the return of his former insanity. 



THE END. 



L6D 



78 



